La función comunicativa de los neologismos: caracterización a partir de criterios basados en el uso

Proceedings of the 12th Conference of the European Association of Specific Purposes (AELFE) Actas del XII Congreso de la Asociación Europea de Lenguas para Fines Específicos (AELFE) A Coruña, Spain, 5th – 7th September, 2013 Coordinador: Alan Floyd Moore

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INDEX/ÍNDICE I. FOREWORD II. PRÓLOGO III. SPONSORS / PATROCINADORES IV. PLENARY SPEAKER Jean-Claude Bertin An emergentist model to language-learning environments

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V. PANEL: DISCOURSE ANALYSIS / ANÁLISIS DEL DISCURSO Reaching to Intercultural Rhetoric: Teaching Cultural Values to Students of English in their Writing Compositions

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Francisco Miguel Ivorra Pérez Corpus Stylistics and the Freakonomics Podcast

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Paul Brocklebank La construcción de un discurso jurídico incluyente en las TIC´s

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María Lage Cotelo VI. DIDACTICS AND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION / LA DIDÁCTICA Y LA ADQUISICIÓN DE IDIOMAS Intercultural leadership in Spanish as a foreign language: a comparative content analysis 53 Lieve Vangehuchten Estrategias de lectura como apoyo al aprendizaje del inglés en un contexto AICLE Mª del Carmen Lario de Oñate

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María Vázquez Amador Linguistic Barriers in Doctor-Patient Communication in Algeria

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Khadidja Belaskri Experiencing Vocabulary Learning Using Small Language Corpora

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Višnja Kabalin Borenić Sanja Marinov Martina Mencer Salluzzo L’intercompréhension entre langues romanes dans un monde multilingue: une façon de se rapprocher des immigrants grâce aux nouvelles technologies 98 Mercedes Eurrutia Cavero ESP or GE courses? English as academic language vs. content

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Hadrian Lankiewicz Interlanguage pragmatics of the speech act of request: A case study of EFL learners in the academic context

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Anna Szczepaniak-Kozak VII. APPLICATION OF ICT’s IN LSP / APLICACIÓN DE LAS TIC´s EN LFE Preparing the Way for Internationalisation: the Incorporation of Social Networks into the Sciences Curriculum for Learning English

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Verónica Pérez Gómez SECMA tool: new software for standard maritime English teaching

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Rosa Mary de la Campa Portela Ana Bocanegra Valle Learning the integration of DDL in Secondary Education EFL teaching: The

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importance of ESP 155 Alejandro Curado Fuentes El uso de las TIC en los cursos de Español Académico para alumnado Internacional 165 Ana María Gil del Moral Guías temáticas en Lingüística Aplicada y la concienciación del género del artículo de investigación / On-line thematic guides in Applied Linguistics and their role in promoting students’ research article genre awareness

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Teresa Morell Moll La utilización de las TIC en el aula de inglés técnico marítimo: 15 años después del proyecto MARCOM

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Rosa Mary De la Campa Portela Ana Bocanegra Valle VIII. COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS AND LANGUAGES FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES / LINGÜÍSTICA COGNITIVA The workplace use of English by Public Relations practitioners in Poland: a survey 192 Emilia Wąsikiewicz-Firlej Difficulties of Russian as a foreign language through the eyes of teachers Cognitive Linguistics and Languages for Specific Purposes

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Тatiana Strokovskaya Bilingual Polytechnic Dictionary of Metaphors: Spanish to English Ana Roldán Riejos Silvia Molina Plaza

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A critical analysis of religious metaphor in the discourse of conservative political ideology. /Análisis crítico de las metáforas de religión en el discurso político de ideología conservadora

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María Antonia Urquía Muñoz IX. TERMINOLOGY AND LEXICOLOGY / TERMINOLOGÍA Y LEXICOLOGÍA La función comunicativa de los neologismos: caracterización a partir de criterios basados en el uso

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Elisabet Llopart Saumell Judit Freixa Aymerich The Effect of Dialect: Teaching Lexical Variants to Healthcare Professionals

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Ashley Bennink X. TRANSLATION / TRADUCCIÓN Términos de percepción visual en las notas de cata de vino en inglés y español y sus traducciones al polaco 262 Bozena Wislocka Breit ANEXO (sección VI)

Un ejemplo de multilingüismo: la enseñanza del alemán y del francés en la



Universidad Politécnica de Madrid



Javier Herráez Pindado



Isabel Serra Pfennig

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I. FOREWORD Those who attended and participated in this conference were struck by the following positive elements in the presentations and plenary sessions. Firstly, the sheer range of studies, themes and aspects it is possible to touch on in the course of the study of LSP. From engineering to economics, architecture to email scams, business and management, legal and maritime English, the learning process, primary and secondary education, language in the workplace, travel blogs and tourism, doctor / patient relationships and healthcare, the application of technology to the learning situation, wine tasting to advertising, politics to research articles, academic language to football reports, and language teaching. Secondly, we were struck by the depth of learning, in spite of the range. People had gone into great detail in their studies, not remaining on the surface but digging deeper, were not self-satisfied but understood that the job of university teachers is to lead others where they suspect there may be rewarding findings at the end of their research. Thirdly, not only the range and depth but the realism, together with the enthusiasm displayed by the plenary speakers and the participants in parallel presentation sessions. Contributors are well aware of the difficulties they face, the economic and financial problems that await them, the different priorities given to education and science by governments, the unwillingness of governments to look into even the medium-term future. And in spite of that, the way all contributors, young and older, have given themselves over to their professions, almost heroically at times, displays their enthusiasm for their chosen careers. Besides, the participants realised the importance of innovation, especially the use of ICT’s, which formed the basis of many talks: the use of technology to open up analyses of corpora, the use of distance learning, to overcome the problems of time and the sheer number of students, making the learning process more flexible and adapted to individual students’ and teacher’s circumstance, opening the door to future trends in individual and collective learning in LSP. Finally, we were impressed by the level of collaboration, by which we mean the way all those who have brought their ideas are willing to share them with others, have been helpful, collaborative, good speakers abut

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also good listeners. But not only that, the door has been opened to collaboration between ESP organizations at international level in the future, with some national organizations feeling they can collaborate more fully and satisfactorily at an international pan-European level. We would like to take this opportunity to thank the sponsors who made the celebration of this conference possible. We hope that all those involved in the conference will have come away with a renewed sense of purpose, and we look forward to the 13th conference, to be held in Stockholm in 2014.

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II. PRÓLOGO A aquellas personas que asistieron al congreso y/o participaron en él les llamaron la atención los siguientes elementos. Primero, la enorme variedad de estudios, temas, y aspectos que se pueden exponer como resultado del estudio de las lenguas para fines específicos. Desde los reportajes de los partidos de fútbol a la ingeniería, desde la economía y la arquitectura a los correos electrónicos engañosos, desde el lenguaje de los negocios a la gestión de las empresas, desde el inglés marítimo y legal al proceso de aprendizaje de los idiomas, la educación primaria y secundaria, el lenguaje en el lugar del trabajo, los blogs de los viajes y el turismo, las relaciones médico / paciente y los servicios sanitarios, la aplicación de la tecnología a la situación de aprendizaje, la cata de vinos y la publicidad, la política y los artículos de investigación, el lenguaje académico y la enseñanza de idiomas. Todos estos temas se han tocado. En segundo lugar, nos ha impresionado la profundidad que han alcanzado los participantes. No se han conformado con estudios superficiales, sino que han cavado más profundo. Han entendido que la tarea del profesor universitario es guiar a los demás a donde sospechan que existen hallazgos gratificantes al final de sus investigaciones. En tercer lugar, no solo la variedad y profundidad, sino también el realismo, junto con el entusiasmo mostrados tanto por los conferenciantes plenarios como por los participantes en las sesiones paralelas de presentaciones. Son muy conscientes de las dificultades a las que se enfrentan, de los problemas económicos que les esperan, las diferentes prioridades otorgadas a la ciencia y la educación por sus gobiernos y gobernantes, la incapacidad de los gobiernos a mirar ni siquiera el futuro a medio plazo. Y, a pesar de ello, todos los participantes, jóvenes y no tan jóvenes, se han dedicado a sacrificarse para alcanzar sus metas en su profesión de elección, a veces casi con heroísmo. Los participantes se han dado cuenta de la importancia de la investigación: el uso de la tecnología para llevar a cabo los análisis de los corpus lingüísticos, la utilidad de la educación a distancia, para superar los problemas de tiempo y número de alumnos, haciendo que el proceso de aprendizaje sea más flexible, adaptado a las circunstancias individuales de alumnos y profesores, abriendo la puerta a futuras tendencias en el aprendizaje individual y colectivo en LFE.

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Finalmente, nos ha impresionado el nivel de colaboración mostrado, la manera en la que todos han traído sus ideas con la voluntad de compartirlas. Han sido buenos conferenciantes, pero también buenos escuchantes y espectadores. Pero no solo eso, sino que se ha abierto la puerta a la colaboración futura entre organizaciones nacionales y AELFE. Algunas organizaciones piensan que pueden ganar en efectividad trabajando a nivel pan-europeo. Quisiéramos aprovechar esta oportunidad para darles las gracias a los patrocinadores, que han hecho posible la celebración de este congreso. Deseamos que todos que contribuyeron a lo que (consideramos) ha sido su éxito se hayan encontrado con nuevos propósitos renovados, y esperamos volver a encontrarnos en el XIII Congreso, que se celebrará en Estocolmo en 2014.

III. SPONSORS / PATROCINADORES

Facultade de Filoloxía

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IV. PLENARY SPEAKER

Jean-Claude Bertin An emergentist model to language-learning environments

Introductory remarks A fundamental problem with CALL literature is the impression created by the frequent use of such terms and expressions as «technology», «ICT», «computers», «CALL» or equivalent expressions in the different languages. Such generic terminology may indeed be the source of an ontological illusion which can lead the reader to believe that Computer-assisted language learning is a unified field and that the results of research may therefore be valid for any situation. This situation may be especially common in the media or, more of a problem, in political discourse, where technology is regularly presented as the answer to all educational evils. Such a unified or holistic perspective is first challenged by one of the characteristic features of the social sciences (as opposed to ‘exact sciences’): the difficulty – if not the impossibility – to offer generalizations and rules. A closer look at the literature in the field also contributes to show a different image from the one revealed by the above-mentioned generic terms. Grosbois (2012), for example, shows how the recent history of digital technology has resulted in a wider choice of tools than the one available before. Research has also shown that this variety is reinforced by the way each individual user develops specific uses of a given technology, resulting in a gap between the formal instruction given to the learner and the actual strategies developed by individuals (Fisher 2007). Bertin et al (2010) confirm the multidimensional nature of technology by a review of the literature, in terms of situations, objects, type of learners, pedagogical objectives, contexts… and point to the impossibility of drawing general conclusions from individual field studies.

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(from Bertin et al 2010, pp. 146-147)

This variety of objects and situations open up to two main questions for the researcher as well as the practitioner: • How can we consider the field from a broad angle? • How can researchers and teachers form appropriate representations of experience for their own specific situations? This paper will suggest that one can tackle these questions by • Looking for constants in the variety of individual situations and studies in order to identify what might be referred to as ‘fundamentals’ in CALL. • Organizing these constants into explanatory and heuristic models grounded on explicit theoretical foundations, which will provide appropriate conceptual frameworks for the various actors.

Elements of theoretical stance Three theoretical starting points will be highlighted, on which the model eventually presented is based.

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1. The concepts of distributed learning and of co-construction of knowledge (Hutchins 1995, Vygotski, psychology and sociology) are based on the notion that knowledge results from the interaction between human beings, artefacts and the environment (Narcy-Combes et al 2013). Human beings think collaboratively thanks to the tools and the environments available in a given context. The first consequent hypothesis is that what really matters is not so much the description nor the classification of knowledge but the predictable social actions which will influence the final process. A second hypothesis is that the processes which are to be taken into account in any language teaching/learning situation are both intra-personal (neuronal connections) and inter-personal (socio-constructivism). 2. This focus on interaction calls for a perspective derived from Dynamic Systems Theory (DST). In a very schematic way, this approach is based on the notion that learning is a process organized as a system based on fundamental components which need to be identified in a first stage. The development of interactions between these components leads to retroactions on the nature of each component / actors whose nature will therefore be impacted in a dynamic way. Individual processes of appropriation of the various tools available in a learning environment will give birth to instrumentation processes (Rabardel 1995) which will themselves vary with time as a result from use. A major element of Dynamic Systems Theory is that it focuses more on the interactions between the components of a system and on their changes in time than on the impact of a given factor on a given learner (Verspoor et al 2008). 3. DST as a global approach to complexity has given birth to several perspectives. While ‘reductionism’ aims to explain complexity by reducing it to its basic constituent parts, the concept of ‘emergence’, on which the present vision is grounded, is based on the principle that a global system is richer than the mere sum of its parts. When complexity increases, new properties emerge, which are specific to the system itself. For Larsen-Freeman & Cameron (2008) or Ellis & Larsen-Freeman (2009), language production and language learning are emergent processes which are both non-linear and unpredictable. The dynamic nature of the perspective opened by DST is a key factor in the comprehension and description of these processes.

Modeling as an answer to complexity By providing a representation of the system in which language learning takes place, modeling can provide some kind of order in a constantly evolving environment. A model may fulfil three distinct and complementary functions:

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• Offer a guide within uncertainty: while it is not possible to predict what will happen precisely, the model may remind teachers/designers of the variety of interactions at work and help provide «organizing circumstances» (Spear & Mocker 1984) in learning/teaching environments. • Structure what can be structured: a model offers researchers, teachers and designers, a framework to ensure the theoretical validity of the assumptions on which interactions are based. • Design functions (of the technology) and roles (of the human actors) based on the interactions identified in the model. As a consequence, a model cannot be normative (e.g. algorithmic), as no second language acquisition theory provides a sound basis for predictions, but heuristic: its main function is to help raise appropriate questions in the specific contexts in which it is applied. It should therefore be flexible to fit the various situations and actors. It should also guide the identification of the nature of each component, of the interfaces where interactions will take place so as to ensure the global coherence of the learning environment. This is assumed to be a condition for the specific properties of the system to emerge. In other words, the model does not prescribe any particular vision (of the language, of language learning, of technology…) but is meant to be reconstructed in each individual case by the various actors. It is expected to help trigger a number of processes and performances (without offering any certainty as to the perfect match between the result of these processes and the teacher’s objective). As a consequence, the model should be comprehensive, i.e. not limited to materials or technology, but holistic, i.e. it should describe the appropriate organization of the whole learning environment. The present approach moves away from prior studies in CALL, which tend to focus on the type of computer-based activities (e.g. Demaizière & Buisson 1992), the use of hypermedia materials (e.g. Tricot & Rouet 1998) or the structure of multimedia materials (Bertin 2001). This perspective marks a shift from functional descriptions of language learning situations to interactionist descriptions and the influence of the theories of complexity.

Brief overview of the didactic ergonomics model In this paper, we will rapidly outline the didactic ergonomics model. The reader is referred to more specific publications for a more detailed description, notably Bertin et al 2010, Bertin 2011.

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The model is constructed around 5 poles representing the constants which emerge from the scientific literature on CALL, and shows the interfaces where interactions develop between them. Based on the traditional “pedagogic triangle” (language, learner, teacher) (Houssaye 1988), the model shows how the components are organized into a system revolving around the learning process, embodied in the organisation of the materials and of the task. Technology (ICT or any other technology indeed) constitutes the fourth pole, bearing in mind that its actual nature in a given situation should be specified, as the variety of available technology (be it digital) prevents any generalisation on its functions and possible uses. Context is the fifth and last pole as it determines to a large extent the specific features of any learning environment or experiment. Context is defined according to three main dimensions: macro (European/national language policies and recommendations), meso (the institution in which the learning situation takes place), micro (class level, classroom organization...).

Fig.1: the didactic ergonomics model (Bertin et al 2010)

Any learning environment provides room for both technology-mediated and direct interactions between the learner and language on the one hand, the learner and the teacher on the other hand (dotted arrows on left

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and right hand-side of the model). In the case of blended or distance learning, these 5 poles are mirrored by a number of other elements which should be given attention: peers and tutors, whose interactions may be facilitated or observed through a monitoring technical device. Considered as a whole, the model provides opportunities to study the way each pole interacts with the other components and to understand how the way each element is constructed and impacts the system. It is clearly grounded in a socio-constructivist perspective as it assumes that the social task should trigger language production and learning processes through interaction. Hence, the traditional focus on the teacher is here replaced by a focus on the teacher-learner-tutor relationship which constitutes the backbone of the learning environment. A further point to be made is that the model represented in fig. 1 should be understood as a static photograph of the learning environment, at a given time. The dynamic perspective introduced in our emergentist stance implies however that the system keeps moving and reorganising around one or the other of the poles (Bertin & Narcy-Combes 2011 )It should therefore be considered in the light of two important elements: its pedagogical potential and its dynamic nature (relation to time). The acquisition potential of the environment may be illustrated as in fig. 2.

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Fig.2: acquisition potential of the environment

Learning as an emergent process implies the impossibility for anyone (teacher included) to predict what will take place once the learners are faced with the task (Bygate 2011). In other words, while the theoretical coherence of the various constituent parts of the model does not ensure final acquisition for the learners, it will however favour the emergence of specific properties in the form of language production activities favourable to language learning. Language acquisition itself for all/any learner remains impossible to predict. One can only assume that the more interaction with the language there is, the more likely the learners’ communicative competence is to develop (socio-constructivist background). The main consequence is that all we can do as teachers is to make sure the environment will include as many coherent components as possible and to observe how each learner takes part in the various forms of interaction provided. The teacher’s tutoring role then focuses on observing the various uses of the environment and language activities while these are taking place, and on providing appropriate feedback and guidance.

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The second essential dimension of emergentism is time (fig. 3).

Fig. 3: a dynamic vision of the didactic ergonomics model

New language production practices appear in a non-linear and unpredictable fashion, marked by a number of breaks which can only be analysed afterhand. These breaks mean that the representation of the relative weight of each pole within the system at a given moment will change with time and will have to be constantly reassessed. Individualisation implies being able to monitor the appearance of these breaks for individual learners and to provide appropriate feedback to help system reorganization. The function of the model is precisely to offer sufficient guidance so that the new representation remains coherent, i.e. keeps taking into account all the components of the system. Narcy-Combes et al (2014) argue that such reorganisations are facilitated by 4 main elements: • Identification of the causes of the breaks and reorganisations (social, affective, cognitive… aspects) • Availability of several models of the learner (individual and cultural differences…) • Availability of appropriate models of learning in a specific context (compared grammars, phonological systems…) • Reconstruction of all these elements within the present model, bearing in mind it is submitted to

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contextual influences and evolution.

Using the model The type of heuristic model advocated in these lines can find three main applications for teachers and researchers: • Providing a conceptual framework for a more accurate understanding of complex language learning situations, for both teachers and researchers; • Providing a conceptual framework for learning environment, materials and task design, for teachers, designers and institutions; • Providing a conceptual framework for the design of training courses for teachers and tutors. For example, Bertin (2011) has shown how the model can be deconstructed to highlight the various roles played by the different actors of the pedagogical situation (i.e. teacher, tutor and learner) and to provide guidelines for innovative perspectives of long-term teacher ‘education’ (rather than short-term ‘training’). We will here take two examples of how the didactic ergonomics model can be used in different contexts.

Example 1: understanding complexity in language teaching and learning situations. This example is taken from A. Saverna’s doctoral research (underway) on learners’ representations of mp3 players in EFL learning in a secondary school.

Fig. 4: original assumption of MP3 player use in the classroom

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Saverna’s initial approach (fig. 4) was based on the assumption that learner motivation would be increased by using a familiar artefact, on the one hand, that this ‘transparent’ object would be easy to use, on the other hand. Integrating the technology in the language class was felt to be a mere change from ‘listening to music’ to ‘listening to English’. Observations in different similar contexts however showed that learner attitude to the mp3 player-based activity was not what had been anticipated. An explanation might be found by referring to the model (fig. 5). When placing the mp3 player on the “technology pole”, a more complex reality emerges.

Fig. 5: placing the MP3 player in the model – highlighting complexity

Learners’ representations are no longer constructed from their usual “leisure” use of the mp3 player, but are a result of the artefact being the support of a language learning task provided by the teacher for a given pedagogical intention in a specific context. The psycho-social foundation of the representations should therefore be explained in very different – and more complex – terms from the ones anticipated. While the “leisure” use of the mp3 player might be relevant to models of informal, or “incidental”, learning such as the one described by Sockett (2013), the mp3 player-based task should be designed along lines derived from formal/institutional education only. The instrumentation processes differ in the two situations and the question the teacher should tackle is how to favour new representations of the artefact so that they might promote language learning.

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Example 2: designing methodologies for ESP teaching. In this second example, we will start from the model to show how it can help raise appropriate questions when designing and ESP course (fig. 6).

Fig. 6: the heuristic dimension of the model – the case of ESP teaching

As the model reflects a systemic view of the teaching/learning situation, changing the nature of one element means consequent evolutions in the rest of the system. Defining the “language pole” as “English for Specific Purposes” therefore entails a number of evolutions on the other poles and interactions of the model, which will prove essential for course designers. Here are examples of such questions guided by the model: 1. Language pole: • What does ‘specificity’ refer to? • How to identify a specific domain? • How to identify the limits between specific and non-specific language in order to determine specific pedagogical objectives? • Which criteria for language description? (vocabulary? Pragmatic functions of the language?

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Types of professional communication? Types of indicators?...) 2. Learner’s expectations, representations, motivation: ESP students will most commonly expect “a new start” in language learning (i.e. distinct (and supposedly more motivating) from the type of General English they have experienced before. This means notably that the course will be expected to reflect the needs or representations of the ‘professional’ world. 3. Needs analysis: if the concept dates back to the 1970’s and the communicative approach, it needs to be reassessed in the light of the more recent methodologies (i.e. task-based). Focus will not so much be on contents (input) as on the required competences and on the identification of situations for authentic tasks. 4. Teacher’s personal representations of the domain, of the LSP, of the professional world and activities…, will be impacted by the nature of the target ESP. 5. Choice of teaching methodology: which methodology is best suited the specific type of ESP to be taught? A number of options are open: • No specific methodology? • Content-oriented approach (authentic materials)? • Task-based (TBL or TBLT?) • Content Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)? Conclusion What this paper has tried to show is the added value that a model can bring to teachers as well as researchers because of the complex and dynamic nature of the objects and processes under consideration. The examples given aim at showing how the model cannot be normative but heuristic: users should reconstruct their own model from the overall pattern suggested in order to take stock of their individual context. Its main interest lies in the fact that it offers a comprehensive framework to be referred to by teachers, course/environment designers and designers alike. More specifically: • It provides a comprehensive framework which avoids strict focus on one of the poles (e.g. technology and overtly technology-oriented approaches);

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• This enlarged perspective favours the capacity of the learning environment to produce the expected results; • It is a stimulus for dynamic thinking. References Bertin, J.-C. (2001). « Call material structure and learner competence ». In Chambers A. & Davies G (eds), ICT and Language Learning, a European perspective, Lisse: Swets and Zeitlinger Publishers, pp. 83-100 Bertin, J.-C., Gravé, P. & Narcy-Combes, J.-P. (2010). Second-language distance learning and teaching: theoretical perspectives and didactic ergonomics, Hershey, USA: IGI Bertin, J.-C. (2011). “An Emergentist Approach to the Evolving Roles of the Teacher in Distance Learning Environments”. In Arab World English Journal, Vol.2 No.3 August 2011. http://www.awej. org/?article=58 Bertin, J.-C. & Narcy-Combes, J.-P. (2011). “Ordo Ab Chao: la modélisation pour gérer le chaos ? Dispositifs d’enseignement/apprentissage en langues médiatisés et à distance”. Colloque «Apprendre les langues à l’université au 21e siècle» 9-11 juin 2011, Universités Paris 3 et Paris 6. Bygate, M. (2011). “Does learners’ language pattern on pedagogic tasks, and why might it matter?” Keynote speech at conference “University Language Learning in the 21st century”, DILTEC, Paris 6 – La Sorbonne nouvelle, June 9-11 2011. Demaizière, F. & Dubuisson, C. (1992). De l’EAO aux NTF – comment utiliser l’ordinateur pour la formation, Paris: Ophrys. Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The Psychology of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: OUP Ellis, N & Larsen-Freeman, D. (2009). Language as a complex adaptive system. Ann Arbor, MI. Wiley. Fischer, R., (2007). “How do we know what students are actually doing? Monitoring students’ behaviour”, in CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning), Vol. 20/5, p 409-442, London, Routledge. Grosbois, M. (2012). Didactique des langues et technologiess – de l’EAO aux réseaux sociaux, Paris: PUPS.

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Grosbois, M. (2013). Production langagière en anglais L2 et environnement numérique d’apprentissage, note de synthèse en vue de l’Habilitation à Diriger des Recherches, Université du Havre. Houssaye, J. (1988). Le triangle pédagogique. Berlin: Peter Lang. Hutchins, E., (1995). Cognition in the Wild, Cambridge. MA: MIT Press. Larsen-Freeman & Cameron (2008). Complex systems and applied linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Narcy-Combes, J.-P., Bertin, J.-C., Miras, G. & Narcy-Combes, M.-F. (2013). “Apport des savoirs savants en didactique des langues: modélisation ou transposition?”, Recherches et Applications, la revue recherche du Français dans le Monde. Rabardel, P. (1995). Les Hommes et les Technologies – Approche cognitive des instruments contemporains. Paris: Armand Colin, série Psychologie. Saverna, A. (ongoing). La baladodiffusion – représentations et attitudes des apprenants, doctoral dissertation (Supervisor: J.-C. Bertin), University of Le Havre, France. Spear, GE, Mocker, DW (1984). “The  organizing circumstance: Environmental determinants in selfdirected learning”, Adult Education Quarterly. Sockett, G. (2013). L’apprentissage informel de l’anglais en ligne, note de synthèse en vue de l’Habilitation à Diriger des Recherches, Université du Havre. Tricot, A. & Rouet, J.-F. (1998). Les hypermédias – approches cognitives et ergonomiques. Paris: Hermes. Verspoor, M., Lowie, W. and Van Dijk, M. (2008). “Variability in Second Language Development From a Dynamic Systems Perspective”. Modern Language Journal 92,2: 214-231.

V. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS / ANÁLISIS DEL DISCURSO

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Reaching to Intercultural Rhetoric: Teaching Cultural Values to Students of English in their Writing Compositions Francisco Miguel Ivorra Pérez University of Alicante (Spain)

Abstract Following Hall’s cultural dimension of ‘context’ (1976) the aim of this research is twofold: (a) to analyze how Spaniards’ cultural values towards this cultural dimension is reflected in some particular rhetorical strategies when writing their compositions in English and (b) to examine whether the use of Spaniards’ writing rhetorical strategies in English could be considered effective regarding Britons’ cultural values towards this world dimension. A corpus of 100 students’ opinion essays from the third year of their degree in English Studies was selected for the study. A qualitative and quantitative analysis was used to determine the type of rhetorical strategies that are used by Spanish students when writing their opinion essays in British English. Key Words: intercultural communication, cultural dimensions, contrastive rhetoric, academic genre.

Una aproximación a la retórica intercultural: La enseñanza de los valores culturales en las composiciones escritas por estudiantes de inglés

Resumen Basándonos en la dimensión cultural del “contexto” (Hall, 1976) dos son los objetivos que planteamos en este estudio: (a) analizar el modo en que los valores culturales que los españoles tienen hacia dicha dimensión cultural se reflejan en determinadas estrategias retóricas en sus redacciones escritas en inglés y (b) examinar si dichas estrategias retóricas escritas en inglés se consideran efectivas teniendo en cuenta los valores culturales con que los británicos responden a esta dimensión cultural. Un corpus de 100 ensayos de opinión recopilado de un grupo de estudiantes de tercer curso del grado en Estudios Ingleses se ha seleccionado para el análisis. Asimismo, se ha empleado un análisis cualitativo y cuantitativo para determinar el tipo de

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estrategias retóricas que los estudiantes españoles hacen uso en sus redacciones escritas en inglés británico. Palabras clave: comunicación intercultural, dimensiones culturales, retórica contrastiva, géneros académicos.

Introduction After about four decades of research and debate on the discipline of contrastive rhetoric, the main concern of this discipline is now moving from a structural description of linguistic variables to “an interest in cognitive and socio-cultural variables of writing” (Connor, 1996: 18). The study carried out by US applied linguist Robert Kaplan (1966) was the first attempt to explain the written styles of ESL students as opposed to patterns of L2 speech. He maintained that to the degree that language and writing are cultural aspects, different cultures have different rhetorical tendencies. New research has now expanded the concept of contrastive rhetoric towards an interdisciplinary area of cross-language and cross-culture study that benefits from the theories and methods of different fields such as applied linguistics, translation studies, composition and rhetoric studies, discourse analysis and anthropology (Connor, 1996; 2004; 2005). There is no doubt whatsoever that contrastive rhetoric has had an important impact on students’ understanding of cultural differences in writing. From an anthropological perspective the concept of culture has received numerous definitions throughout the decades. Gibson (2000: 7) conceives culture in the sense of “a shared system of attitudes, beliefs, values, and behaviour”. It has also been defined as “the software of the mind or collective mental programming” (Hofstede, 1991: 4). In other words, it is generally accepted that the theme of “shared values” is central to any definition of culture. The cultural dimension of “context” is one of the most relevant cultural dimensions studied by psychologists, anthropologists, sociologists and linguists interested in the field of intercultural communication. This cultural dimension is originally identified by the well-known North American anthropologist and pioneer in the studies of intercultural communication Edward T. Hall, in his book Beyond Culture (1976). The advances made in social anthropology are more or less in line with the emergence in the 1970’s of a discipline called intercultural pragmatics. This focuses on the contrastive analyses of the culture-specific pragmalinguisticconventions ruling speech acts and discourse strategies across languages (Wierzbicka,

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1991; Trosborg, 1995; Márquez, 1997; Díaz, 2003; Hickey & Stewart, 2005). Although these studies are based on theanalysisof theinterculturaluseoflanguage, they seem tolackan underlying explanationthat can tell linguists why theprinciplesof interaction ofspeakersfrom differentsocietiesaremotivated by the cultural values​​that solve many of the cultural dimensions shared by all human beings. In fact, this research question has been of increasing academic interest since the 1990’s (Kaplan, 1966; Clyne, 1994; Scollon&Scollon, 1995; Prykarpatska, 2008; Guillén, 2009; Ivorra, 2009, 2012).

Objectives and hypothesis The aim of this research is twofold: (a) to analyze how the cultural values that Spaniards have towards the cultural dimension of ‘context’ is translated in some particular rhetorical strategies when writing their compositions in English and (b) to examine whether the use of Spaniard’s writing rhetorical strategies in English could be considered effective in relation to the cultural values that Britons have towards this cultural dimension. If we consider the values thatSpaniards and Britons attach to the cultural dimension of ‘context’, my hypothesis is that Spanish students may transfer the rhetorical strategies used in their first language when writing English compositions in several linguistic variables related to organization, format, and content. These rhetorical strategies could have been learned and acquired through the cultural values that constitute the cultural framework of the Spanish society. However, they may be considered ineffective when writing in English since Britons could have other cultural values and expectations to transmit these same rhetorical strategies.

Methodology and corpus This is an empirically-based research in which I selected a corpus of 100 opinion essays written in British Englishby Spanish students in the third year of their degree in English Studies at the University of Alicante, Spain. During the months of October and November of 2013 students were asked to write an opinion essay based on two relevant social topics in Spain nowadays “Political consensus on education: Is this important?” and “Do we carry a healthy life?”. Although students were taught how to write an effective opinion essay in English, my interest lied on the idea if they continued to transfer unconsciously the rhetorical patterns of

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XII Congreso AELFE (2013) Spanish into English.

A qualitative and quantitative analysis was followed in this research. On the one hand, I examined the different linguistic variables that are used in the corpus of Spaniards’ opinion essays in English comparing them with the ones that must be written in a correct opinion essay in British English. On the other hand, the number of essays containing these variables was calculated so as to establish possible interferences of rhetorical patterns from Spanish into English. Since I intended to analyze linguistic features of opinion essays through the prism of culture, I aligned them with the cultural dimension of ‘context’ to make my framework complete. In this way, I followed the taxonomy established by linguist Guillén in her work Crossing Disciplines in Intercultural Communication Research (2009). The cultural dimension of ‘context’ refers to the way people express and convey meaning. According to Hall (1976) this context can be labelled as high or low, on a sliding scale. In high-context cultures much of the information is embedded in the context surrounding the message whereas in low-context cultures this information is explicitly conveyed through the written word. In spite of the fact that the study carried out by Hall was observational in nature, he came up with the conclusion that Spain is considered a fairly highcontext culture whilst the UK is a low-context culture. If we attach the cultural dimension of ‘context’ to the linguistic features that are used in opinion essays, I think that these cultural values could be reflected in the more or less implicitness or explicitness by means of which opinions, reasons and examples are expressed throughout the text.

Results and discussion In the next table we can observe the results derived from my analysis: Cultural Dimension: Context Cultural Orientation

Linugistic variables

Frequency (100)

Spain

UK

High-context cultura

Low-context cultura

Implicitness (Opinions,

Explicitness (Opinions,

reasons, and examples are not

reasons, and examples are

explicitly stated in the text)

explicitly stated in the text)

80/100

20/100

Table 1. The cultural dimension of “context”. Frequency of linguistic variables in opinion essays

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The results that stem from my analysis suggest that 80 of the 100 opinion essays analyzed show a preference for conveying opinions, reasons and explanations implicitly. In contrast, in 20 of these essays tend to use them explicitly. In other words, Spanish students of English prefer to write their opinions, reasons and explanations in an implicit way. This can be perceived in the lack of clarity that texts show. For instance, one of the first things that make me think that these essays lack clarity of meaning may be the non-existence of macro-markers and micro-markers in discourse. Whereas the first ones refer to higher-order discourse markers signaling major transitions throughout the text (e.g. to begin with; in reference to what has been said before; in the following point; to conclude, etc.), the second ones consist of lower-order markers of segmentation and intersentential connections (e.g. reason, consequence, purpose, concession and counterargument, addition, contrast, etc.). Another important linguistic variable that may provoke the text not to be explicit could be, in my view, the scarce or null presences of topic sentences that help the reader know what each paragraph is about. In order to demonstrate the main features mentioned above, let us reproduce one example of opinion essay from the corpus: One year ago, students and professors starting going out streets demanding a review of Education System and Education Laws. Right now, these mobilizations and suggestions are in continuing develop. The reason is quite clear: We still haven’t got any solution. Instead of living a difficult economic period, Government and Educational Institutions should revise and also considerate the fact that giving a little bit helps, is necessary. About this topic my class has had a discussion; the cost of university and financial responsibilities. Throughout the debate, the opinions and thoughts were mostly different. On the one hand, a vast majority of students, including some professors, are disagree with the actual university financiation. Despite of pupils could or couldn’t pay their inscriptions, their point of view must respectable and understanding. They have the right. So, as a right, people can claim and demonstrate (through a polite way) their position and support or even their disappointment. Whilst ones think that state should have full financial responsibility for students, some others classmates believe that there must be an equal financiation. With this argument, my mates wouldn’t reflect that people who can’t pay their studies shouldn’t go to university. Finally, I believe that nowadays there are many solutions to financial problems. According to this, I would like to express the necessity to eliminate useless financiations. We have to fight for our rights.

Figure 1. Example of opinion essay written in English as a second language: Implicit meaning.

Leaving aside the numerous lexical, grammatical, and spelling mistakes contained in the text, in the example reproduced above the reader ends reading the essay without having a clear idea about the opinion

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that the writer wants to convey with respect to the topic being discussed. In this particular case, the student is talking about political consensus on education. However, what he or she is actually doing is providing lot of information about what he or she knows on the social topic without stating explicitly the opinion and reasons that he or she has towards that social issue. It seems to be that at the end of the essay the student offers some personal opinion, which in fact has no coherence with the ideas stated previously. From a linguistic point of view, we can also see the absence of discourse markers and topic sentences that may guide the reader about the personal ideas that the writer is transmitting throughout the text. One of the main reasons why Spanish students use implicit rhetorical strategies in their essays written in English has to do with the fact that in high-context cultures, like Spain, it is the responsibility of the reader to decipher the meaning of the message that the writer wants to communicate. In these cultures, the general meaning of the text depends on contextual clues (Walker, et al., 2003: 70-71; Usunier and Lee, 2005: 376; Ivorra, 2009: 110-111). However, when writing an opinion essay in British English, one must be aware of the fact that the UK holds a low-context orientation and, as such, the information communicated by its speakers must be explicitly stated in the written message (Mueller, 1996: 114-115; Hall, 1998: 61). In relation to an academic genre like the opinion essay, this would be translated in the explicit statement of opinions, reasons and explanations throughout the whole text. The use, for instance, of good topic sentences at the beginning of each paragraph together with the use of macro and micro-markers may help the reader know from the very beginning what the author is trying to convey. One example of opinion essay selected from the corpus can shed light to my observations: If there is one major issue that worries students at the present time, that would be tuition. As a consequence of the dramatic economic crisis we are going through, the question has been posed: Who should pay our education? There are compelling arguments to both sides of the controversy. As the government raises taxes, more and more people are forced to drop out their studies. The vast majority of students blame the president for their academic failure and demand a better investment of the taxes we all pay as citizens. Therefore, according to many people, education should be free for everyone who is willing to improve their knowledge and decides to study a degree at university. However, there are some people whose opinion is to the contrary. Due to the current financial problems we are facing, there is a growing perception that money should be more wisely distributed, and for some, education takes more than it shares. A small part of the population argues that students should pay for their own tuition, as they are mature enough to find a part-time job that enables them to earn a reasonable wage. In fact, in many countries, namely Canada or the United States, students need to pay a tuition around twenty times higher than the one we are paying at present. Another key point is that, as our education used to be fairly cheap or even free in some occasions, students do not value all the effort the government is making to give them a proper education. Consequently, many students repeat year after year the same subjects and waste a great amount of public money. Having considered all the arguments, I believe that education is not only a necessity, but also a right and all these people who wish to pursue an ambitious career should be able to do so. Nevertheless, it is also important to ensure that those who are in real need can be helped. Figure 2. Example of opinion essay written in English as a second language: Explicit meaning.

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In sharp contrast with the text previously shown, in this one we can observe how the writer of the text states his or her opinion explicitly in the written message. This explicitness can be clearly seen in the constant use of topic sentences at the start of each paragraph that makes the reader aware of the things that he or she is discussing each time. Apart from that, sentences are well-structured and linked with constant discourse micro-markers that give the text full cohesion.

Conclusions The results revealed in this study suggest that Spanish students writing an opinion essay in British English transfer most of the times the linguistic and rhetorical strategies of Spanish into English without being aware of the different interpretations that these texts could have in the British reader. Although they have been taught how to write an appropriate opinion essay in English, the great majority of them continue to make these interferences in their second language writing skills. One of the reasons for this to happen is the lack of cultural sensitivity that there exists in the English language curriculum nowadays. It is my view that lack of cultural learning could have lasting pedagogical consequences in today’s globalized world. Efforts are needed by teachers of foreign languages, especially English, to find ways to help students become active producers of meaning who can deeply reflect on intercultural communication and decide for themselves which rhetorical patterns they would choose to communicate with foreign partners. It is generally acknowledged that language teaching has traditionally been isolated from anthropological culture. However, at the current state of globalization that education involves, there seems to be an urgent need to include the invisible and hidden dimensions of culture in the teaching of a second language. Despite the importance of the study carried out, I must say that it has its own limitations too. I am aware of the fact that the corpus has only consisted of 100 essays written in British English by Spanish students. Nevertheless, it could have been a deeper research to analyze texts written both in the L1 and in L2. This could lead to a much more empirical study to observe differences between the linguistic and rhetorical strategies used in both languages. In addition, interviews with students could be carried out to gain more factual knowledge about the decisions they make when writing their compositions. Surveys could also be given to students so that they can provide us with the type of writing instruction they have been receiving in English in their academic context. Apart from that, it would be a good idea in future research to analyze the impact of other cultural dimensions like those designed by Dutch anthropologist and social psychologist

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Geert Hofstede (1991) in this particular genre as well as in other academic and professional written genres to obtain more knowledge on the influence of cultural values on academic and professional discourse.

References Clyne, M. (1994). Intercultural Communication at Work. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Connor, U. (2005). “Comment on Toward Critical Contrastive Rhetoric by Ryuko Kubota and Al Lehner”. Journal of Second Language Writing 14, 2: 132-136. Connor, U. (2004). “Intercultural Rhetoric Research: Beyond Texts”. Journal of English for Academic Purposes 3,4: 291-304. Connor, U. (1996). Contrastive Rhetoric: Cross-Cultural Aspects of Second-Language Writing. Cambridge. Díaz, F.J. (2003). La cortesía verbal en inglés y en español. Actos de habla y pragmática intercultural. Jaén: Publicaciones de la Universidad de Jaén. Gibson, R. (2000). Intercultural Business Communication. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Guillén, V. (2009). “Crossing Disciplines in Intercultural Communication Research”. In V. Guillénet al. (eds.), Intercultural Business Communication and Simulation and Gaming Methodology. Peter Lang: Bern. Hall, Edward T. (1998). “The power of hidden differences”. In J. Milton Bennet (ed.), Basic Concepts of Intercultural Communication. Selected Readings, 53-68. London: Intercultural Press. Hall, Edward T. (1976). Beyond Culture. New York: Anchor Books. Hickey, L. &M. Stewart (eds.) (2005). “Politeness in Europe”. Multilingual Matters. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Hofstede, G. (2003/1991). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. London: ProfileBooks. Ivorra, F. (2012). “La dimensión cultural del individualismo y su impacto en el discurso transaccional de las páginas Web de negocios españolas y estadounidenses” Revista de Lingüística y Lenguas Aplicadas 7, 1: 147-162.

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Ivorra, F. (2009). “La influencia del contexto en el lenguaje de las páginas Web de negocios en inglés y en español”. In C. Pérez-Llantada& M. Watson (eds.), Language for Business: A Global Approach. 1st International Seminar of Language for Business, 97-112. Zaragoza: Prensas Universitarias de Zaragoza. Kaplan, R. B. (1966). “Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education”. Language Learning 16: 1-20. Márquez, R. (1997). “Politeness Phenomena in British English and Uruguayan Spanish: The Case of Requests”. A Journal of English and American Studies 18: 159-167. Mueller, B. (1996). International Advertising. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Prykarpatska, I. (2008). “Why are You Late? Cross-Cultural Pragmatic Study of Complaints in American English and Ukrainian”. Revista Alicantina de Estudios Ingleses 21: 87-102. Scollon, R. & S. Wong Scollon (1995). Intercultural Communication: a Discourse Approach. Malden: Blackwell Publishing. Trosborg, A. (1995). Interlanguage Pragmatics. Requests, Complaints and Apologies. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Usunier, J-C. & Lee, J.A. (2005). Marketing Across Cultures. 4th Ed. Harlow: Prentice Hall. Walker, D., T. Walker & J. Schmitz (2003). Doing Business Internationally: The Guide to Cross-Cultural Success. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company. Wierzbicka, A. (1991). Cross-Cultural Pragmatics. The Semantics of Human Interaction. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter.

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Corpus Stylistics and the Freakonomics Podcast Paul Brocklebank Tokyo University of Technology

Abstract In recent years techniques from corpus linguistics have been adopted wholeheartedly by practitioners of English for Specific Purposes (see Nesi 2013). This paper attempts to contribute to this trend by presenting the results of a small project that investigates how one might go about applying techniques from corpus stylistics to the analysis of a podcast series. By comparing transcripts of Freakonomics Radio podcasts with spoken and written reference corpora, key words, key parts of speech, key concepts and the most common n-grams for the program series are identified and discussed. In addition to indicating program content, the results reflect the fact that the podcast is a hybrid spoken-written genre, cast light on the structure of the programs, and provide data for teachers to draw on when helping prepare students to produce their own podcasts.

Key Words: corpus linguistics, stylistics, podcasts, keywords, genre

Introduction Undergraduate students in the School of Media Science at Tokyo University of Technology study a range of subjects, all of which relate to the production of media, for example television program production, computer animation, computer graphics, music production and game design, covering both old media and new media, but particularly the latter. The course lasts four years, and English is compulsory for three of these. After skills courses in their first year, students are offered project-based, media-related options in the second and third years. One new-media-related idea that has been proposed by staff is a course where students would analyze examples of a real podcast, and then be required to collaborate on and produce their own podcasts. Although not entirely original – the idea has been suggested in several recent textbooks – the

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help that those books provide for students wanting to work on their own podcasts is limited. Dudeney and Hockly (2007: 98-102), for example, mostly restrict themselves to giving advice on setting up a podcast page. Ceramella and Lee (2008: 72-73), on the other hand, are somewhat more helpful, supplying podcast listening exercises, vocabulary exercises focusing on spoken English, and a list of useful expressions that students are recommended to use in their podcasts. However, the listening example in Ceramella and Lee is short and not from an authentic podcast; arguably, it would be desirable for students to work with a real podcast and investigate its structure. The current project was therefore undertaken to see how far corpus-linguistic techniques for analyzing texts stylistically could be used to assist in the analysis of podcasts, both for linguistic analysis of the genre, and as one method of mining the podcast for typical language that students themselves can use when preparing their own programs.

Approach The podcast series that I decided to examine for the project was the ‘Freakonomics Radio Podcast.’ ‘Freakonomics’ is the title of a book and website that appeared in 2005 (Levitt and Dubner 2005), in which the authors attempt to apply economic theory to topics that are not traditionally dealt with by economists. In February 2010 the first ‘spin-off’ podcast appeared on the website. The production values of the program are high, as it is jointly produced by established broadcasters WNYC and American Public Media. The authors of the books, Stephen Dubner and Steven Levitt, act as presenter and regular guest/pundit respectively. An indication of its popularity is that the podcast regularly appears in the iTunes store podcast top ten. The episodes of the program that are downloadable from iTunes were transcribed and uploaded to the Freakonomics website. Transcripts for the 68 programs up until February 14th 2013 were downloaded, and these composed the podcast corpus used in this project (‘Freak Corpus’). Freak Corpus is small at just less than 250,000 tokens. Two tools were used for the analysis, the online tool Wmatrix from the University of Lancaster (see Rayson 2008) and the free n-gram generator, kfNgram (Fletcher 2002). Using the British National Corpus (BNC) Sampler Spoken and Sampler Written corpora (both around 1,000,000 tokens) as reference corpora, key words, key parts-of-speech and key concepts were identified in Freak Corpus. KfNgram was used to search for the most commonly occurring 5-grams in the transcripts, whether complete grammatically or not. Longer complete strings were also examined.

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Key Words For the key words two lists were generated, one a comparison with the spoken reference corpus, the other with the written reference corpus. The words were ranked by their log-likelihood scores. In order to limit the number of words to be examined, a log-likelihood score of 110 was selected as the cut-off point for the two lists. The words were then sorted into three groups – (a) words highly significant when compared with both written and spoken corpora; (b) words highly significant versus just the written corpus, and (c) those words significant versus the spoken corpus. In what follows, the key words, parts of speech, and concepts are underlined. The largest number of significant words was found when comparing with the written corpus, 150 in total, with 82 of those appearing in neither of the other lists. In addition, the top 19 ‘versus written’ key words all scored higher than the top word on the ‘versus spoken’ list. Therefore, initially at least, there seems to be a greater ‘key word’ distance from the written corpus than from the spoken corpus. For (a), the key words that were significant in both lists, there were two main groups, nominals and spoken discourse elements. A typical key word analysis brings to the surface the ‘about-ness’ of a text or texts. Most of the nominals in (a) reflect topics covered in the programs, including education, food, lottery and healthcare, mostly from an American perspective. ‘Freakonomics Radio’ being the program that it is, economists are also prominent. There is also a lot of reference to the current medium and related media, including the name of the program, ‘Freakonomics.’ More generally, the presenters present topics in relation to how they affect people, with people often being referred to informally as guys or kids. Kind is often used when presenters or interviewees supply examples, as in ‘this kind of competition’ or ‘that kind of person.’ The second most prominent group in (a) consists of items typical of spoken discourse. In addition to single lexical items Wmatrix picks out certain multi-word elements. Among these were kind of used as an imprecise adverbial in ‘I kind of learned by doing,’ and the interpolations I think and let’s say. What puts the transcripts at the spoken end of the spoken-written continuum are the key words as compared with (b), the written part of the BNC Sampler. These include a number of personal pronouns and adjectives, the majority of which are first and second person forms. A number of contracted forms are key (’re, n’t), as are further examples typical of spoken discourse (including you know, yeah and I mean). Of the twelve verbs in the list the most prominent was think, reflecting the fact that this is a program where opinions are important. Coming up also appears, in the sense of ‘soon to come on this program.’

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Several adverbs were key – two degree adverbs really and very, and the stance adverbials actually, probably and basically. The largest remaining group consists of various nouns and pronouns, many of which have vague semantic content – typical of speech – such as thing, something and someone. Membership of (c), the ‘versus spoken’ list, fell into two broad groups, the first consisting of content nouns, while the other, function words, is the first sign that we may have to adjust our characterization so far of the Freakonomics podcast as belonging to a fully spoken genre. Indeed, if one listens to any of the podcast episodes, it is evident that parts of the program are scripted, particularly the segments where the presenter comments at length on the topic at hand and when linking between interview sections. In this list there are a number of prepositions that are key, the main one being of, a reflection of extensive prepositional post-modification in the transcripts. In Biber et al. (1999), prepositional post-modification was found to be more common in written rather than spoken registers, as is the case for articles and phrasal comparison of adjectives (more), here also prominent. Therefore, there are at least some conspicuous lexical items that reflect writtenness in the transcripts.

Key Parts of Speech Wmatrix also allows the user to tag texts with CLAWS 7 part-of-speech (POS) tags and generate key POS’s. The top five parts of speech as compared with the written reference corpus were: (1) second person personal pronouns (‘you’); (2) the first person singular subject personal pronoun (‘I’); (3) the third person present tense of ‘be’ (‘is’ or ‘’s’); (4) the base form of lexical verbs; (5) the first person plural subject personal pronoun (‘we’). (1), (2), and (5) add support for what we saw above with key words in indicating a spoken register. As spoken registers such as conversation tend to be made up of short clauses, the frequency of lexical verbs (4) also tends to be high. The comparison with the spoken reference corpus, on the other hand, is dominated by common nouns and general adjectives. This nominal and adjectival predominance is indicative of a written register; in the four genres (conversation, fiction, news, and academic discourse) that they cross-compared Biber et al. (1999: 65) found that nouns were most common in news and least common in conversation, while adjectives were found to be least common in conversation.

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XII Congreso AELFE (2013) Key Concepts

Wmatrix supports semantic as well as syntactic tagging, and by running a comparison between corpora in the same way as for words and POS’s we can identify key semantic groups. The main reason for doing this is that we may be able to identify a concept that would otherwise be hidden in the texts if that concept were distributed among several lexical items. Table 1 lists the main concepts identified by Wmatrix.

RANK 1

CONCEPT People

RANK 8

2

Education in general

9

3

Degree: Boosters

10

4

Degree

11

5 6 7

Alive Time: General Evaluation: TRUE

12 13 14

CONCEPT Games Science and technology in general Food The Media: TV, Radio and Cinema Knowledge Children’s games and toys Expensive

Table 1: Key Concepts in ‘Freak Corpus’

The results for concepts tend to supplement the earlier findings rather than add anything especially new to our analysis. It was already noted how topics covered in the program, such as education, affect people. How things affect people’s lives (alive) are also often touched on. In addition, we have seen how frequently boosters like ‘really’ and ‘very’, and comparisons with ‘more’ are encountered in the data. The importance of degree is also shown by the category degree, whose main exponent is ‘as’ when used in comparisons. What can be evaluated as true also appears to be important. The second half of the list is mostly occupied by content concepts – games, science and technology, food, and children’s games or toys. Media is partly self-reflexive (the concept’s exemplar ‘radio’ is mostly from the phrase ‘Freakonomics Radio’) and partly reflects content, such as discussion of TV and movies. Knowledge is often referred to, as is the expense of something, as might be expected from a program that deals with economics.

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XII Congreso AELFE (2013) N-grams

For the n-gram analysis it was decided to limit the study by concentrating on the 5-grams that were used five times or more in the episodes. There were 171 of these. As it was clear that many of these 171 were components of longer n-grams, I went back to the corpus and searched for the longest, complete n-gram occurring five or more times – ‘complete’ in the sense that it formed a syntactically complete phrase or sentence(s). This was the two-sentence, 25-gram from wnyc and apm american public media this is freakonomics radio the podcast that explores the hidden side of everything here’s your host stephen dubner. Then all occurrences of these were deleted from the corpus and this ‘new’ text file was examined for the next longest n-gram. This process was repeated until all of the complete 5-grams were identified, a list of 38 complete 5- to 25-grams. Half of these 38 were phrases that reflect what has traditionally been referred to as a radio station’s formatics. Formatics are a radio station’s rules for when and, to a certain extent, what a DJ or presenter should say (Geller 2011: 157). This involves mentioning the station’s name or call letters before particular segments of a program, and resetting the topic every few minutes. In Freakonomics, which is co-produced by two established radio production companies, these conventions seem to have been inherited by the podcast from traditional radio. Table 2 shows a typical, though somewhat simplified episode outline.

ORDER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

SEGMENT Sponsor’s message 1 Preface: Excerpt of Stephen Dubner (SD) interviewing guest Theme music with announcer’s introduction of SD SD introduces episode topic and first interviewee Interview 1 – first part ‘Coming up…’ Sponsor’s message 2 Announcer’s re-introduction of SD Main program segment: Interview 1 conclusion – commentary from SD –

10 11

Interview 2 SD discusses program topic with co-writer Steven Levitt (SL) Wrap-up by SD and SL

12 13

SD preview of next episode Credits Table 2: Freakonomics Typical Episode Format

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The episode begins with a sponsor’s message, which is not transcribed, and a preface made up of an excerpt of the presenter interviewing a guest. The third segment is the theme music and over that the announcer’s introduction of the presenter. This is where the 16-gram from wnyc and apm american public media this is freakonomics radio here’s your host stephen dubner regularly occurs. There then follows the presenter’s introduction of the topic and the first part of the interview. After this, the presenter deliver’s a ‘coming up’ segment as a taster for what is to follow, and it is in this part of the program that we often find the 5-gram coming up on freakonomics radio. Next there is another message from a sponsor, again not transcribed. Then the announcer re-introduces the presenter with the 16-gram from wnyc and apm american public media this is freakonomics radio here’s your host stephen dubner. Segments 9-12 are the main parts of the program with further interviews, topic discussion, wrap-up and preview of the next episode. At the end are the credits; it is from here that the 18gram and as always if you want to read more about the hidden side of everything go to freakonomics.com made it into our list of n-grams. Here we see how regularly occurring n-grams picked out by the analysis mirror repetitive program structure. Certain program segments nearly always contain certain strings of language. In fact, this repetition of language helps constitute the program structure, although knowledge of who is saying what and the use of theme music certainly make the structuring more obvious. In addition to providing information as to program structure, the n-gram analysis brings to the surface some other repeatedly-used strings with various functions in the episodes. The strings he’s an economist at the university of chicago, steve levitt my freakonomics friend and co-author, my freakonomics friend and coauthor steve levitt are three examples of Stephen Dubner’s introduction of his co-author, Steven Levitt, at certain points in the episodes. As the episodes almost always contain interviews, there are certain strings that SD uses to preface his questions (e.g. let me ask you this), to request the interviewee to talk (e.g. talk to me for a minute), and as a preface to a comment on something surprising said by the interviewee (wait a minute wait a minute). Looking at non-complete fragments may also provide useful data. Asking questions is an interviewer’s job and common examples from Stephen Dubner are ‘what do you think of’ and ‘how do you feel about’ when asking for an opinion, ‘what do you know about’ when eliciting knowledge, and ‘what are you going to’ when asking about intention.

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Summary and Conclusion In summary, our key word, key POS and key concept analyses have cast light on the type of language used in the podcast, reflecting the fact that it is a spoken medium with interviews and discussion, but with elements from the written language, perhaps as an indication that certain segments are scripted and because the program allows presenters and interviewees to be discursive in their commentary and replies. The key analyses also bring to the surface elements reflecting the content of the program, a program where the presentation of opinions is important, where statements of degree and comparisons are often made, and the fact that it is a media product that makes reference to other media. The n-gram analysis revealed how the format of the program is structured linguistically and also identified certain strings that are regularly used to carry out particular functions in the programs. In addition to revealing the discourse structures inherent in the programs, this data can be used when producing teaching materials to guide students in the analysis of the podcast and when it is time for them to produce their own examples.

References Biber, D., S. Johansson, G. Leech, S. Conrad & E. Finegan (1999). The Longman grammar of spoken and written English. London: Longman. Ceramella, N. & E. Lee (2008). Cambridge English for the Media. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dudeney, G. & N. Hockly (2007). How to Teach English with Technology. Harlow, Essex: Pearson Longman. Fletcher, W. H. (2002). “KfNgram”. URL: http://www.kwicfinder.com/kfNgram/kfNgramHelp. html [10/28/13]. Geller, V. (2011). Beyond Powerful Radio. New York and London: Focal Press. Levitt, S. & S. Dubner (2005). Freakonomics. New York: Harper Collins. Nesi, H. (2013). “ESP and Corpus Studies” in B. Paltridge & S. Starfield (eds.), The Handbook for Specific Purposes, 407-426. Malden, Ma, USA: Wiley-Blackwell. Rayson, P. (2008). “From key words to key semantic domains”. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics. 13, 4: 519-549.

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La construcción de un discurso jurídico incluyente en las TIC´s María Lage Cotelo

Resumen El lenguaje hace posible la inclusión social. El desconocimiento lingüístico limita las actuaciones de los particulares. Y por este motivo, en numerosas ocasiones es la propia lengua la que provoca que se produzca un tipo particular de exclusión social. Un hecho que suele pasar desapercibido, máxime si nos referimos a lenguajes específicos. El caso concreto que aquí se quiere presentar es el de la suma de dos lenguajes específicos y de suma importancia para los particulares: el lenguaje jurídico y las herramientas hermenéuticas de la Sociedad del Conocimiento. Conjuntamente son una herramienta beneficiosa para la sociedad. Sin embargo, no es infrecuente que la falta de comprensión lingüística obstaculice y devalúe el cometido de la Justicia, la aplicación de la ley en condiciones equitativas. A lo largo del presente trabajo se intentarán analizar las causas y las consecuencias de este hecho como fenómeno social disgregador.

Palabras clave: Derecho, diversidad, exclusión social.

The construction of a inclusive legal discourse in the TIC´s Language makes possible social inclusion. The lack of linguistic knowledge limits people’s field of action. And for that reason, language provoke a particular type of social exclusion, a fact that can be unnoticed, specially when we talk about specific languages. The concrete case that we want to present here is the sum of two specific languages, a fact very important for the people: the juridic language and the hermeneutic skills of the knowledge society.

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Together, they are very useful for our society. However, it’s not unusual to find linguistic understanding as an obstacle in the juridical sphere. In this article we will analyze the causes and the consequences of this fact as a inclusive social phenomenon.

Kew Words: Law, diversity, social exclusión.

Introducción Al realizar una interpretación del discurso jurídico, se observa que existe una tendencia metodológica en el empleo de sus formas lingüísticas. Esto repercute en el a priori interpretativo, primordialmente en aquellos casos en los que las construcciones neutrales del discurso jurídico limitan (o pudieren limitar) la interación de lo jurídico con el particular. La actualidad nos presenta un tipo de interacción y acceso directo a través de las tecnologías de la información y de la comunicación a casi cualquier tipo de discurso. En este sentido, la comunicación jurídica, sea del tipo que fuere, es un mero indicativo, tanto exponencial como transcriptivo, de una realidad cotidiana que desea llegar al particular. Hecho que tampoco ha pasado desapercibido a la Administración, que en sus diferentes ámbitos ha intentado modernizarse e informatizarse. Sin embargo, el lenguaje jurídico no es de “accesibilidad” inmediata para todo tipo de sujetos. Este hecho obstaculiza en numerosas ocasiones la relación que cualquiera de nosotros puede tener ante la multiplicidad de trámites judiciales. Y más, si desde el discurso jurídico, lo que se pretende es que prime la articulación de su estructura en función de la búsqueda de la neutralidad. Lo que se analizará a continuación, tiene por pretensión exponer aquellos conflictos que operan en el discurso jurídico desde el tratamiento narrativo-formal del derecho estatal y la recepción del mismo en el plano social. Haciendo hincapié en los problemas que plantea la pretensión de la neutralidad en la construcción analítica de un discurso jurídico-comunicativo. Hecho que puede dar lugar a tipologías sociodiscursivas incluyentes o excluyentes.

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¿Un discurso jurídico-analítico? Al hacer referencia a un supuesto tipo de “discurso jurídico-analítico” puede que de lugar a confusión y que se pueda pensar que el presente análisis se llevará a cabo en términos de presupuestos lingüísticos. Sin ir más lejos, la lingüística se lleva encargando del estudio del lenguaje y la repercusión en diversos aspectos, dando lugar a pseudo-disciplinas como lo pueden ser la sociolingüística, etnolingüística...cuya base está en la capacidad del lenguaje para influir en la sociedad, para comunicar. Pero al tratar con un tipo concreto de discurso, siendo el caso del discurso jurídico, cabe plantearse si su estudio lingüístico debe ser abordado desde las pretensiones de una posible lingüística aplicada o desde un planteamiento sociológico. Esta primera duda se plantea por el hecho de que estamos, o podemos estar, ante un tipo de discurso disgregador. Afirmar lo anterior, puede considerarse como una “osadía” o una concepción particular que cada uno de nosotros puede tener sobre el desconocimiento de un lenguaje específico pues “los significantes y su juego de oposiciones dan esa sensación de ambigüedad” (Muñoz, 1989: 292). Nos serviría para ejemplificarlo el situarnos en un contexto en el que el lenguaje empleado se aleje del lenguaje operativo con el que tratamos habitualmente. Pero, con las oportunas salvedades que pudiese plantear la situación anterior, solemos usar aquel tipo de lenguaje con el que nos sentimos “cómodos”, que está en la base de nuestro entendimiento. Y cuya función es establecer relaciones de la índole que sean necesarias para satisfacer nuestras necesidades vitales. Por tanto, cuando hacemos referencia a un discurso jurídico-analítico, estamos haciendo referencia a una vaga pretensión del legislador de inferir un sentido propio a cada una de las palabras que articulan, valga la redundancia, el texto articulado. Esta pretensión desconozco particularmente si se lleva a cabo con un fin intencionado, o es un mero y “supuesto” formalismo jurídico para dotar de fuerza lingüística al mandato contenido en toda norma bajo presupuestos éticos y amparados en la igualdad (tanto formal como material) que “como característica propia de los derechos humanos es tender hacia los derechos subjetivos reconocidos por aquellas normas que representan una idea de justicia, o en caso de estar in fieri, una idea de justicia que pretende convertirse en norma.” (Maceiras Ameijeiras, 2013) El hecho de que un lenguaje específico, tenga su propio “código no escrito” sobre el empleo del mismo, no implica que sea por si mismo excluyente, sino precisamente, implica especificidad. La diversidad lingüística referida a diversos escenarios es fruto de la riqueza conceptual de aquellas lenguas con pretensiones analíticas que frente al lenguaje puramente sintético posee una riqueza referencial mayor. Sin embargo, cuando se elabora un tipo de discurso generalizado la máxima que debe de primar es la de comunicar, más siendo un mensaje de masas. Por ello y haciendo un giño al planteamiento semiológico de

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Buyssens “hay que distinquir entre una semiología de la significación y una semiología de la comunicación” (Muñoz, 1989: 365) El lenguaje jurídico condiciona, queramos o no, cualquiera de nuestros comportamientos, y nos induce a un determinismo conductual que debe ser cumplido en favor de la convivencia. Cabe considerar también, que el desconocimiento del discurso jurídico, de su terminología, no excluye que podamos ser enjuiciados si nuestros comportamientos son contrarios a Derecho. Pero el problema que queremos presentar aquí es quizá más grave que una sanción punitiva, cuyo hecho de por si ya lo es. Dado que el lenguaje jurídico está presente en todas las esferas de nuestra vida, más que otro tipo de lenguajes, y es un lenguaje específico pero que trasciende a la colectividad, su terminología y redacción, aún siendo jurídica, debería de ser cercana a los particulares. Pero no es frecuente encontrar un estudio con financiación pública cuyos indicadores se basen en la influencia del discurso jurídico en el particular. Puede que se considere innecesario. Parece más importante normar que dar sentido a lo normado. Hemos hecho referencia al hecho de que el desconocimiento normativo no implica que no se produzca un enjuiciamiento. Pero esta incomprensión por parte del particular del discurso jurídico no se limita simplemente a sanciones, sino que se extiende a todo tipo de relaciones socio-contractuales. Este problema se agrava si le añadimos el hecho de que las sociedades actuales son sociedades con un alto grado de diversidad social, lo que resulta enriquecedor desde una perspectiva cultural, pero puede provocar procesos segregacionistas a los que hemos aludido en un primer momento. Además, con motivo de la gestión de la diversidad social se suelen dictar numerosas disposiciones normativas en orden (supuestamente) a favorecer la inclusión de la misma y conformar un escenario social en el que tenga cabida dicha diversidad. Ante este hecho cabe cuestionarse: ¿es posible la gestión de la diversidad sin un lenguaje jurídico accesible a la sociedad?

Un discurso jurídico-analítico en la Sociedad del Conocimiento La relación del discurso jurídico con la Sociedad del Conocimiento parece una máxima en nuestros días. Ya Marx había señalado “que la destrucción de la distancia era (…) una obsesión del capitalismo estatal, que siempre luchó, en su batalla por distribuir mercancía, contra el tiempo que se tarda en recorrer el espacio” (Garrido, 2001: 486). Las innumerables herramientas puestas a disposición del particular para que (y en algunos casos de manera gratuita) pueda acceder a casi la totalidad de la información han supuesto

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un avance cuantioso. La Administración, en el amplio sentido del término, no es ajena a este hecho, y ha procurado adaptarse a la informatización del conocimiento. Como muestra, pueden citarse la Ley 11/2007, de 22 de Junio, de acceso electrónico de los ciudadanos a los Servicios Públicos, la Ley 18/2011 de 5 de Julio reguladora del uso de las tecnologías de la información y de la comunicación en la Administración Judicial Electrónica, entre otras. Muchas de estas disposiciones facultan al particular para que cumpliendo los requisitos exigidos, éste pueda realizar trámites que con anterioridad requerían la presencialidad. Hecho que ha facilitado en muchos casos las relaciones con los entes públicos. Sin embargo, y en la línea expuesta con anterioridad cabe señalar que no todo son ventajas. Si hemos intentado señalar que el discurso jurídico puede ser excluyente e incluso llegar a producir la exclusión social de aquellos que no son capaces de entenderlo. La Sociedad del Conocimiento puede acentuar este hecho. La pretensión social al respecto de las nuevas tecnologías tiene una lectura doble: “una que interpreta su presencia como la promesa de una nueva democracia cada vez más igualitaria y más participativa, interactiva y abierta a las diferencias, y otra que parece no excluir el deseo de ver en Internet una plataforma unitaria desde la cual se pudiera lograr que la población mundial se convirtiera en audiencia. Según una u otra visión, serán obviamente distintas nuestras expectativas” (Garrido, 2001: 487). Pero la escasa alfabetización informática no concierne en exclusiva, por contra de lo que pueda parecer, a grupos que podemos pensar como concretos. Lo que acentúa la diferencia. Que la alfabetización informática sea escasa puede paliarse con programas propios en barrios marginales, ancianos, inmigrantes…pero que confluya con el desconocimiento del lenguaje jurídico da lugar a un posible conflicto excluyente mucho mayor: la exclusión dentro de la propia inclusión social que cree tener el particular afectado. Este hecho puede pasar desapercibido. El afectado en cuestión no se siente excluido puesto que al no conocer la tecnología, o al no conocer el lenguaje jurídico, no se da por aludido. Aunque suene altamente utópico e incluso agraviante: la ignorancia es el don de los “privilegiados”. La falta de conciencia sobre la causa, en numerosos casos provoca una “ausencia social” pero que no es entendida como tal por parte del que la sufre; es más, pudiendo llegar a normalizarla. Al no conocer, en este caso, los beneficios que puede conllevar la Sociedad del Conocimiento, el implemento del uso de las tecnologías y que éstas actúen como cauce socio-relacional, es imposible una reflexión sobre la causa que invalida a la persona en cuestión para establecer la interacción. Empeorando si a lo anterior le sumamos algún tipo de acto “trascendental” que

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el sujeto puede o debe realizar a través de medios informatizados. Estamos hablando de un nuevo modo de entender la cultura, en palabras de Garrido “una infraestructura, que es su arquitectura interna, y una superestructura, que es el conjunto de usos personales y sociales de la red con las múltiples implicaciones que de ellos se derivan, lo cual constituye, por así decirlo, una cultura “específica” (2001: 482). Pero esta cultura específica, derivada de la necesaria instrumentalización y un lenguaje específico para establecer una comunicación, coarta la libertad de aquellos que no son capaces de interactuar por medio de ella. Y “¿Cuándo es posible-y necesario- expandir aún en nuestras sociedades el grado de libertad y de igualdad alcanzadas?” (Tezanos, 2010: 781) Si pretendemos una Sociedad Global, que asuma el riesgo de facilitar la vida a los particulares a todos los niveles de su vida, también debemos pretender que en aquellos casos en los que se emplee un lenguaje determinado, como lo es el caso del lenguaje jurídico, se intente facilitar la lectura del mismo.

Las “lecturas excluyentes” del discurso jurídico y su realidad social Cuando se intenta realizar una lectura comprensiva de un tipo particular de discurso pero del que se desconoce gran parte de su vocabulario, de su semántica, como es obvio, es como si no se hubiera leído nada. Peor incluso, se interpreta según términos análogos o según el contexto. El lenguaje jurídico resulta complejo de interpretar dependiendo de sus tecnicismos, otro idioma tal como “la llegada a un lugar distinto a aquel en el que transcurre nuestra cotidianeidad (pero que) acentúa una característica lúdica inicial, a saber: que el territorio que nos es desconocido-a nosotros-es el habitual”. (Ramos, 206: 533) Pongamos por caso la lectura de una sentencia. El o los sujetos implicados en el caso conocen las circunstancias de la misma, pero pueden no entender los términos de ejecución, los plazos procesales, la necesidad y/o tipo de recurso, entre otros. Ya en la vista puede resultar compleja la comprensión si nos enfrentamos a un tribunal o juez inflexible en el uso de la terminología jurídica. Claro que tampoco se puede pretender que exista una “traducción” in situ a la vez que se celebra el proceso. Para el caso mencionado están las figuras procesales en las que el particular delega facultativa o potestativamente su situación procesal y que como intermediarios realizan las actuaciones que consideran oportunas en favor de su cliente. A fin de cuentas sólo se espera un resultado. Cuando desaparecen los intermediarios en los trámites o procedimientos judiciales es cuando se presenta el verdadero problema. Las actuaciones en solitario presentan además de la incomprensión por parte del

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particular, el añadido de una posible interpretación errónea o “a gusto del consumidor” del trámite que se debe realizar; metafóricamente “la falta de fe en la cosa representada puede incluso constituir una ayuda para la ilusión fácil, más aún que el escepticismo” (Bloch, 207: 260). Hecho habitual y que en cierto sentido obstaculiza el verdadero cometido del sentido de la Justicia en la aplicación de la ley: desaparece la igualdad jurídica entre partes, entre Administración de Justicia y particular. La importancia de la comunicación en el discurso jurídico debe de establecerse en base a su función social. Es decir, condiciona en un primer momento el comportamiento de las masas, en el que “el grupo dominanteel que posee los medios de transmisión, creación y difusión de las ideas-, introduce un sistema de valores que condicionan la conducta y la percepción colectiva” (Muñoz, 1989: 79). Y en segundo lugar pretende moderar aquellos conflictos derivados de las actuaciones bien individuales, bien colectivas. Pero deja de ser incluyente en el mismo momento en el que se excluye de manera indirecta a aquellos colectivos a los que éste no llega a transmitir una información que pueda resultarles de relevancia. Lo que puede o debe traducirse en una coartación de libertad individual, libertad para tomar decisiones. A pesar de que aparentemente “no existe un discurso excluyente en tanto público en los estados democráticos”. (Lage Cotelo, 2012) Por todo ello y en una revisión lingüística, las proposiciones analíticas contenidas en el discurso jurídico, en las que el valor de verdad se puede establecer en función del grado de comprensión que los sujetos tienen de los vocablos involucrados en ellas, ocasionan la ruptura entre Derecho y Sociedad.

Conclusiones Una lectura que puede extraerse de estas líneas es que todo beneficio o progreso conlleva a un proceso disgregador. A veces ocurre. Los avances tecnológicos, como cualquier otros, suelen ser en sus primeros momentos propios de una minoría que tiene acceso a los mismos. En el caso de las Tecnologías de la Información y de a Comunicación han supuesto una ventaja incuestionable en beneficio de todos. Sin embargo, también son merecedoras de consideración las circunstancias particulares de aquellos quienes no pueden acceder a las mimas por motivos de diversa índole. El problema que en primera instancia debe ser subsanado para poder acceder a cualquier progreso social favorable, o en términos generalistas, para poder participar de la Sociedad, es el lenguaje. Cuando es incomprensible el mensaje que se quiere transmitir, se elimina toda forma de comunicación, y consecuentemente no es posible la participación.

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La Sociedad del Conocimiento puesta en relación con el lenguaje jurídico complica en numerosas ocasiones la participación ciudadana, y en consecuencia, que se puedan llevar a efecto trámites que presumiblemente son sencillos. De ahí que sea merecedora de especial consideración, pues produce situaciones de exclusión socio-lingüística, comportando la lógica pérdida de autonomía individual de todos aquellos que no pueden gozar en análogas condiciones de los servicios que esta era de la comunicación ofrece, máxime en las relaciones jurídicas.

Agradecimientos Quisiera expresar mi gratitud a Santiago Lage Cotelo (UGR) por su ayuda en la realización de labores de traducción.

Referencias Bloch, E. (2007). Principio esperanza I. Madrid: Trotta. Garrido, M. (2001). Lógica Simbólica. Madrid: Tecnos. Lage Cotelo, M. (2013). Trabajo presentado en el XIII Congreso Internacional IBERCOM: Cultura y esferas de poder. Santiago de Compostela. Maceiras Ameijeiras, S. (2013). ONU Mujeres: una promesa es una promesa. Trabajo presentado en el Congreso Internacional: Violencia, Salud y Trabajo en tiempos de crisis. Santiago de Compostela. Muñoz, B. Cultura y comunicación (1989). Introducción a las teorías contemporáneas. Barcelona: Barcanova. Ramos, D. (2006). Texturas marginales: el desarraigo del extranjero como momento emancipador, in Couceiro-Bueno, J.C. (ed.). Pensar en tiempos de oscuridad. A Coruña: Servicio de Publicacións Universidade da Coruña. Tezanos, J.F. (2010). Exclusión social, democracia y ciudadanía económica. La libertad de los iguales, in Tezanos, J.F. (ed.) Tendencias en Desigualdad y exclusión social. Madrid: Sistema.

VI. DIDACTICS AND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION / LA DIDÁCTICA Y LA ADQUISICIÓN DE IDIOMAS

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Intercultural leadership in Spanish as a foreign language: a comparative content analysis Lieve Vangehuchten University of Antwerp, Faculty of Applied Economics, Dpt. of International Business Communication

Abstract The starting point of this paper is intercultural: the content of academic management handbooks on leadership in Spanish will be compared to the reality as it is reflected in empirical studies on the topic, the research question being whether the academic handbooks are culturally neutral, or take into account that their target public is most likely to operate in a Spanish context. The second part of the study is didactically inspired. Although second/foreign language teachers can now turn to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages to get an orientation on the content selection of their language course, a similar framework is lacking with respect to languages for specific purposes. Therefore, it is the aim of this study to look for feasible ways of content selection, by comparing the content on leadership in five manuals of Business Spanish as a foreign language with the academic and empirical bibliography on this subject examined in the first part.

Key Words: Leadership, intercultural management, Spanish as a foreign language for business purposes, empirical studies, academic literature.

Teorías de estilos de liderazgo en manuales de gestión españoles y su relevancia para la didáctica del español de los negocios.

Resumen En este estudio se examina en qué medida el contenido de los manuales de gestión en español peninsular en cuanto a estilos de liderazgo está influenciado por las teorías de gestión vigentes en un mundo globalizado

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que se basan esencialmente en el modelo anglosajón. Conviene plantearse la pregunta en qué medida estos contenidos reflejan la realidad de la cultura empresarial española en cuanto a estilos de liderazgo, tal como está descrita en los estudios empíricos de Hofstede et al. (2010). La segunda parte del estudio cumple con una finalidad didáctica. En efecto, si bien existe un marco para la selección graduada de contenidos gramaticales al que se refieren todos los actuales métodos EFE (el Marco Común Europeo de Referencia), faltan los criterios objetivos para determinar los contenidos temáticos de los mismos, como lo demuestra la ausencia de referencias a una bibliografía especializada. De ahí que se proponga examinar para una selección de manuales EFE (nivel B2-C1) en qué medida sus contenidos se pueden poner en relación con la bibliografía especializada y cumplen, por tanto, con los criterios imprescindibles de relevancia académica y relevancia profesional.

Palabras clave: Liderazgo, gestión intercultural, español como lengua extranjera para fines específicos, investigación empírica, bibliografía académica.

Introduction The concept of leadership in this paper is defined by the profile of the target audience, that is, students that are learning Spanish as a foreign language for business purposes. These students choose to learn Spanish out of the motivation that they will possibly need this language in a future Spanish-speaking management context. This is why the starting point of this study is intercultural: the question is asked to what extent management practices in a Spanish1 company nowadays differ from those in other European countries. In order to answer this question, we will start by giving an overview of empirical research studies on this topic. The famous Dutch researcher Hofstede showed with his international study on management culture in 17 branch-establishments of IBM all over the world, that working behavior in international companies does not only respond to the directives of the mother company, but is inspired by social and environmental factors of the local culture (Hofstede & Sadler, 1976). This conclusion was corroborated in many other studies by the same author and his team (http://geert-hofstede.com/), as well as by other researchers, though not necessarily with the same results (e.g. Harris & Moran, 1996; the GLOBE project - Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness, House, 2002; Slater et al,. 2002; Jakob, 2003; Etayo Pérez & Preciado Hoyo, 2008; Ahlstrom & Bruton, 2010).

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With respect to the Spanish2 management culture, the conclusions based on the Hofstede cultural dimensions can be resumed as follows:

Power distance Hofstede, Hofstede and Minkov (2010) define power distance as the extent to which an organization accepts unequal distribution of authority. Hispanic cultures, though Spain less than Latin America, are characterized by a rather strict hierarchy, wherein leaders adopt a direct management style, since their authority is not questioned. In the Hofstede index (http://geert-hofstede.com/) Spain obtains a score of 57/100, indicating this respect of hierarchy. In return for this respect, Spanish employees rely on their employer for employment security. According to a study by Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (2010), 71% of the Spanish employees think of their employer as a father that takes care of the organization as if it was his family.

Individualism/Collectivism The result of 51/100 for Spain in the Hofstede index indicates that, according to European standards, Spain is a rather collectivist society. In a global context, though, Spain is at the tail of the individualist societies. This implies that, although the main focus is on the individual and his immediate environment, team work is very natural in Spanish companies, and competition between all times colleagues is out of the question (Hofstede, Hofstede & Minkov, 2010).

Masculinity/femininity With a result of 42/100 Spain has a feminine culture, which means that in organizations there is a communication culture of consultation and consensus (Hofstede, Hofstede & Minkov, 2010).

Uncertainty avoidance This dimension, when applied to a management context, means that employees fear risks and unknown

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situations. The result of 86/100 for Spain indicates that Spanish employees feel a need for regulations and procedures, and that they do not appreciate sudden changes. They prefer a secure and stable working environment (Hofstede, Hofstede & Minkov, 2010).

Long-short term perspective Hofstede, Hofstede and Minkov (2010) state that organizations with a long term perspective tend to prepare the future by using in a rational and economical way the available resources. On the contrary, short term focused cultures give priority to traditional ways of looking for solutions, even if this means that these are not the most effective ones. With a result of 19/100 it seems clear that Spain is characterized by a short term perspective. This resume on the Spanish organizational culture shows that in the current globalized world there are still important regional cultural differences that influence the local management culture. Such differences ask for “flexibility, capacity of adaptation and inclusion of the diversity” (Valentín et al., 2006: 68). In the next section we will examine whether the academic handbooks on leadership used at the Spanish universities account for this interculturality in their contents.

Academic manuals of leadership in Spain: a content analysis In order to analyze the theoretical contents of the academic handbooks on leadership used in Spain, we performed an exhaustive quantitative analysis of the catalogue of the Universidad de La Rioja DIALNET UNIRIOJA (http://dialnet.unirioja.es/), recognized as the second most important bibliographic portal in the world, according to the ranking that was elaborated by the Laboratorio de Cibermetría del CSIC. This analysis was carried out with the search term ‘leadership’ and, for reasons of pertinence, only took into consideration handbooks published after 2000. This first quantitative analysis showed that a rough 25% of the references were translations of handbooks written by mainly north American authors. As for the remaining 75%, with Spanish speaking authors, the titles manifest an undeniable Anglo-Saxon influence, with calques such as ‘liderazgo asociativo’, ‘sistemático’, ‘estratégico’, ‘colaborativo’, ‘creativo’, etc., as well as loan words like coaching, empowerment and so on. The second analysis is qualitative and is based on the academic handbook Introducción al contains

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the liderazgo organizacional by Duro Martín (2006). The Introduction chapter (2006: 33) contains the following table which is an overview of the theories on leadership (LO) from its origins in the sixties of the 20th century up till now. The authors whose names are cited are all north Americans, or foreigners who made career in the U.S. (e.g. E. Mayo, K. Lewin):

Table 1 reproduced from Duro Martín (2006: 33)

Furthermore, the table of contents shows that the theories treated in the chapters are all of north American origin.

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This analysis of the handbook of Duro Martín (2006) leads to the conclusion that the concept of leadership in management theories is mainly inspired by north American theoreticians, and does not take into account local or national types of organizational culture. In the following section, we will proceed to the analysis of handbooks of Business Spanish as a foreign language, and we will compare their contents with the observations made in the preceding sections with respect to the empirical studies on the one hand, and the academic textbooks on leadership, on the other.

Handbooks of Business Spanish as a Foreign Language: a content analysis We analyzed five handbooks of Business Spanish as a foreign language: Al día (Prost & Noriega Fernández, 2006), Temas de empresa (Pareja, 2006), Expertos (Tano, 2009), Empresa siglo XXI (Iriarte, Núñez Pérez & Felices, 2009) y En equipo.es (Lázaro, Ainciburu & Muñoz Vicente, 2007). These manuals were all published between 2006 and 2009. Their final attainment level is B2/C1 of the European Common Framework of Reference and they have a similar extension. In what follows we present the main conclusions for each handbook. Al día (op. cit.) The prologue mentions that this handbook has a clear intercultural objective so that learners might discover

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the business context of Spanish speaking countries. However, the contents of this handbook do not treat such objective, not even implicitly. There is one exercise on doing business abroad, but with China and from an exclusively Spanish point of view, so of little importance for the international student that wishes to learn more on doing business with the Hispanic world. With respect to the content on management theories and leadership, these are limited to the field of human resources.

Temas de empresa (op. cit.) The author states in the prologue that this handbook is for students who wish to attain a B2 level with respect to communicative, economic and juridical contents of the Spanish business world. Indeed, the chapters in this book give without exception a theoretical introduction to these themes, often from the perspective of a management position. As for intercultural objectives, although they are absent in the prologue, this handbook does offer several exercises that contain intercultural information on the Spanish business world. For instance, with respect to the personal and professional profile of the Spanish manager in comparison with other nationalities, and also within Spain, between managers from Madrid and from Barcelona. However, they are at times rather stereotypical, for example when they present the Spanish manager as a ‘bwana’. Furthermore, when addressing the topic of doing business abroad, it is too bad that the viewpoint is exclusively Spanish, while it would be so more enlightening for the target audience to learn more about the experiences from foreigners in Spain and other Spanish speaking countries.

Expertos (op. cit.) This manual gives priority to the practicing of communicative competences, and does not address theoretic contents. As far as interculturality in business is concerned, no explicit objectives are formulated in the prologue. Within the handbook, an intercultural approach is sporadically present, but once more, not always from the perspective of the non-Hispanic student. For instance, in an exercise on time management, the viewpoint is that from a Latin American who wishes to do business with Spanish managers, and an exercise on expatriation tells the story of Spanish expatriates, so not immediately useful for foreign students. There is one exercise that tells the story of a north American that moves to Madrid, but it only focuses on the adventures in his personal life, without commenting on his professional experiences.

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Empresa siglo XXI (op. cit.) It is one of the explicit aims of this manual to treat socio- and intercultural aspects of the Spanish speaking business world. Indeed, every chapter follows the same structure and treats consecutively a pragmatic, linguistic, sociolinguistic, sociocultural and intercultural competence within a Hispanic business context. Although the exercises on intercultural competences are not always very explicit, their perspective is without exception either from a foreigner, either from an intercultural mediator who takes into consideration more than the mere Spanish or Hispanic point of view. This manual does not offer elaborated contents on theoretical principles of management, but it finishes each chapter with a role play that requires putting into practice a management competence, such as, for instance, human resource management activities.

En equipo.es (op. cit.) Each chapter of this handbook contains thematic sections on the various industries of Spanish speaking countries (mining, food industry, tourism, etc.). Nevertheless, and in spite of the many sociocultural contents related with the economic and commercial Hispanic world, the exercises with an intercultural focus are extremely scarce, and almost exclusively implicit. This confirms the statement in the prologue that the contents want to focus on the presentation of cultural and linguistic characteristics of the Spanish speaking countries, rather than on the interactive communication between foreigners and Hispanics. In sum, it can be concluded that these manuals were not always composed with the target audience in mind. With the exception of Temas de Empresas as far as theoretical and academic contents on management and leadership are concerned, and Empresa Siglo XXI with respect to intercultural management communication, the manuals offer overall exercises in reading and listening comprehension as well as written and oral expression that, although they are thematically situated in a Spanish speaking business context, do not explicitly treat technical particularities of intercultural communication that are proper to the Hispanic business world.

Discussion and conclusions This paper addresses the issue of a motivated, no arbitrarian, selection of contents for handbooks of Business Spanish as a foreign language. In accordance with Liddicoat and Scarino (2013: 93 et p., 147 et p.) and

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Cervera Rodríguez (2012: 75-117), we believe that the materials selected for these handbooks should be to a large extent authentic. In the current approach of content-based language teaching, an evolution of the communicative approach, content is considered separately from language, in a sense that content is the guideline for the framework and structure of the language course. In order perform a motivated selection of content, Liddicoat and Scarino (ibid.) suggest that a specialized bibliography can be used as a valuable input of authentic resources. Hence the comparative analysis in this study of empirical studies and academic handbooks on leadership and management styles on the one hand, and textbooks for Business Spanish on the other. In what follows we present the main results of this analysis, according to the criterions of selection out of a professional and/or academic motivation.

Professional motivation The consulted empirical studies on intercultural management indicate that the practices of an organization are influenced by and embedded in the local culture. Therefore, a better understanding of this culture allows for a more effective understanding of the working of the organization. However, in the five textbooks of Business Spanish that were analyzed in this paper, intercultural management content is not only scare, but also either treated in a too implicit manner, or from an irrelevant point of view for the target public. It is remarkable that this reality seems completely different with respect to Business English as a foreign language. According to a study that was performed by Lario de Oñate and Vázquez Amador (2013), the introduction of intercultural themes in Business English textbooks has been booming since the year 2000, with the explicit aim to raise a consciousness on how to establish sustainable and effective contacts with other cultures. On the other hand, the authors emphasize the lack of methodological studies on this topic, a conclusion that is confirmed by Liddicoat and Scarino (2013) for Business English and by Placencia and García (2012) for Business Spanish in particular.

Academic motivation The analysis of the academic bibliography in Spanish on leadership reveals that this concept is treated in Spain in a neutral organizational way, without commenting on the broader local or national culture. In this sense, Spanish manuals tend to copy on North American theoreticians, and passes over possible cultural differences. As far as the presence of theoretical contents in the handbooks for Business Spanish as a

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foreign language is concerned, we observed that only two of them introduce these systematically, but that in general priority is given to the practicing of the communicative skills. In sum, this modest study raises more questions than it seems able to answer. For instance, why is it that Spanish academic handbooks on leadership and management styles seem to be based exclusively on North American examples? In order to answer this question, a more thorough screening of Spanish handbooks is needed, not only with respect to other management topics, but also in a broader European context. Furthermore, a qualitative analysis with academic teachers of management is needed, to get a specialized opinion on the possible reasons. Another question concerns the contents of the textbooks for Business Spanish. If we agree that these should be closer to the international future of the target audience, a wellestablished methodology of motivated selection should guide their composition. This implies, of course, the need for research on the different organizational cultures with respect to leadership and management styles in the various Spanish speaking countries and regions. In order to come to representative results and avoid generalizations that can rapidly turn in to stereotypes, such research needs to be empirically based through surveys that are completed with qualitative techniques such as focus groups and in depth interviews (Houghton et al. 2013). Such an integrated approach, of academic and professional input on the one hand, and empirical, authentic data on the other, would allow for the so much needed common framework of reference for Business Spanish and thus, facilitate the motivated selection of contents for textbooks.

Notes The same question should be asked, of course, with respect to other Spanish-speaking countries. However, priority is given in this world to the Spanish management culture, since it is more likely for our target audience to get in contact with Spain than with Latin America, mainly for geographical reasons. 2

Naturally, Spanish management culture as a univocal concept is an artifact, since the many regional

differences in Spain do not allow for such generalization. Therefore, this resume should be interpreted with the necessary reservations. References Studies Ahlstrom, D. & G.D. Bruton (2010). International management: strategy and culture in the emerging

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world. Australia: South-Western Cengage Learning. Amsterdam/Antwerpen: Business Contact. Cervera Rodríguez, A. (2012). El español de los negocios. In S. Robles Ávila y J. Sánchez Lobato (coords.), Teoría y práctica de la enseñanza-aprendizaje del español para fines específicos, 75-117. Málaga: Universidad de Málaga. Duro Martín, A. (2006). Introducción al liderazgo organizacional: teoría y metodología. Madrid: Dykinson. Etayo Pérez, C. & A. Preciado Hoyos (2008). “Estilo directivo en las agencias de publicidad españolas”. Revista Latina de Comunicación Social: 151-164. Harris, P.R. & R.T. Moran (1996). Managing cultural differences: leadership strategies for a new world of business. Houston: Gulf Publishing Company. Hofstede, G. & P.J. Sadler (1976). “Leadership Styles: Preferences and Perceptions of Employees of an International Company in Different Countries”. Mens en Onderneming 26, 1: 43-63. Reprinted in International Studies of Management and Organization 6, 3: 87-113. Hofstede, G., G. J. Hofstede & M. Minkov (2010). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. Revised and expanded 3rd Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill USA. Houghton, S., Y. Furumura, M. Lebedko & L. Song (2013). Critical cultural awareness: managing stereotypes through intercultural (language) education. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge scholars. House, R.J., M. Javidanb, P. Hangesc & P. Dorfmand (2002). “Understanding cultures and implicit leadership theories across the globe: an introduction to project GLOBE”. Journal of world business 37, 1: 3-10. Jacob, N. (2003). Intercultural management. UK/VS: Kogan Page Limited. Lario de Oñate, M.C. & M. Vázquez Amador (2013). “The intercultural component in Business English textbooks”. Ibérica 26: 173-196 (en prensa, paginación bajo reserva). Liddicoat, A.J. & A. Scarino (2013). “Intercultural Language Teaching and Learning”. Chichester: WileyBlackwell. Placencia, M.E. & C. García (2012). Pragmática y comunicación intercultural en el mundo hispanohablante. Amsterdam / New York: Rodopi. Slater, C., M. Boone, L. Price, D. Martínez, I. Álvarez, C., Topete, & E. Olea (2002). “A Cross-cultural

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investigation of leadership in the united-states and Mexico”, School Leadership & Management, 22, 2: 197-209. Trompenaars, F. & C. Hampden-Turner (2010). Over de grenzen van cultuur en management. Valentín, N., M.E. Rivera, J. Mbawmbaw, R. Nieto, y R. Téllez (2005). “Liderazgo transcultural: factor para la competitividad de las organizaciones”. Investigación universitaria multidisciplinaria 4, 4: 61-71.

Online index Hofstede, G. et al. Índice de dimensiones culturales, http://geert-hofstede.com. Accessed 31/10/2013. Handbooks of Business Spanish as a foreign language Iriarte Romero, E., E. Núñez Pérez & A. Felices (2009). Empresa siglo 21: el español en el ámbito profesional. Madrid: Edinumen. Lázaro, O.J., C. Ainciburu & B. Muñoz Vicente (2007). En equipo.es 3: curso de español de los negocios. Madrid: Edinumen. Pareja, M.J. (2006). Temas de empresa. Madrid: Edinumen. Prost, G. & A. Noriega Fernández (2006). Al dí@: curso superior para el español de los negocios. Madrid: SGEL. Tano, M. (2009). Expertos: español orientado al mundo del trabajo. Barcelona: Difusión.

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Estrategias de lectura como apoyo al aprendizaje del inglés en un contexto AICLE. Mª del Carmen Lario de Oñate, Universidad de Cádiz María Vázquez Amador, Universidad de Cádiz

Abstract El Aprendizaje Integrado de Contenidos y Lenguas Extranjeras (AICLE) o Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) hace referencia al uso de las lenguas extranjeras como medio de aprendizaje de contenidos no lingüísticos, es decir a las situaciones en las que las materias o parte de las materias se enseñan a través de una lengua extranjera con un objetivo doble, el aprendizaje de contenidos y el aprendizaje simultáneo de una lengua extranjera. La Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales de la Universidad de Cádiz inició durante el curso 2011-12 un proyecto de enseñanza bilingüe inglés-español en el Grado en Administración y Dirección de Empresas. La asignatura Foundations of Business Administration, participante en este proyecto bilingüe y que se imparte en segundo curso de dicho título, introduce en su enseñanza el método del caso. Durante el pasado curso uno de esos casos fue objeto de diseño y desarrollo de diversas actividades en las que se presentaban estrategias de apoyo para afrontar la comprensión del texto y su terminología. Todas estas actividades autoevaluables, relacionadas con el texto en cuestión, fueron volcadas en el Campus Virtual de la asignatura con objeto de que fueran realizadas por los estudiantes de manera autónoma a través de las TIC’s. Asimismo, se elaboraron una serie de documentos de apoyo al aprendizaje de lenguas con el fin de facilitar la destreza de la lectura del texto seleccionado. Estos documentos incluían estrategias previas, durante y después de la lectura del texto; recomendaciones para la lectura de textos científicos extensos y recomendaciones sobre el uso de diccionarios monolingües y bilingües. Esta comunicación presentará el trabajo desarrollado y arriba expuesto.

Key Words: Comprensión lectora, estrategias, AICLE

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Introducción Los métodos y enfoques de la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras han ido evolucionando a lo largo del tiempo, los criterios sobre la naturaleza del lenguaje en las distintas épocas han influido, y en ocasiones, han dado lugar a diferentes métodos o enfoques de enseñanza. Así entre 1840 y 1940 estuvo vigente el Método Gramática-Traducción, que tenía por objetivo conseguir que los alumnos pudieran entender las obras literarias de la lengua objeto de estudio y posteriormente, y como consecuencia de esa destreza, pudieran desarrollar la producción escrita. Conocer la lengua significaba dominar las reglas gramaticales y saberlas aplicar. Posteriormente este método fue cuestionado debido a la creciente necesidad de poder comunicarse oralmente en una lengua distinta de la materna. A partir de aquí surge el Movimiento de la Reforma (Reform Movement). El Método Directo, y algunos más hasta llegar al Enfoque Comunicativo y otros como Whole Language, Multiple Intelligencees o The lexical Approach. Si partimos de la inseparable dicotomía enseñanza/ aprendizaje y concebimos su relación con la concepción que aborda “the teaching process as the facilitation of learning” (Brown, 1987: 1), observamos cómo los distintos métodos empleados a lo largo de la historia de la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras son un reflejo no sólo de los diferentes paradigmas lingüísticos y sus concepciones sobre la naturaleza del lenguaje, sino además de las teorías sobre el aprendizaje de lenguas. El año 2001, como Año Europeo de las Lenguas, contribuyó sin duda a fomentar el aprendizaje de lenguas mediante una gran variedad de métodos, entre los que se incluye la oferta educativa de tipo AICLE. El Aprendizaje Integrado de Contenidos y Lenguas Extranjeras (AICLE) o Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) consiste en utilizar una lengua distinta de la nativa del estudiante para aprender otras materias. La política lingüística de la Unión Europea tiene por objeto proteger la diversidad lingüística y promover el conocimiento de lenguas consiguiendo que los ciudadanos tengan competencias en al menos dos idiomas además de su lengua materna. Una de las estrategias a desarrollar para conseguir dicho multilingüismo es adoptar el enfoque AICLE en distintos niveles de enseñanza. El acrónimo AICLE ha sido definido como: Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is a dual-focused educational approach in which an additional language is used for the learning and teaching of both content and language (Coyle, Hood & Marsh, 2010: 1). Para Mehisto, Marsh & Frigols (2008: 11) la clave de AICLE se encuentra en la integración de los contenidos

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con la lengua extranjera: “Thus, CLIL is a tool for the teaching and learning of content and language. The essence of CLIL is integration”. Aunque a estos elementos se les añade además las habilidades para el aprendizaje. En definitiva, se trata, por tanto, de enseñar materias específicas utilizando una lengua extranjera como vehículo de transmisión.

El contexto del proyecto La Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales de la Universidad de Cádiz marcha durante el curso 2011-12 un proyecto de docencia mixta inglés-español en el Grado en Administración y Dirección de Empresas. El plan docente de enseñanza bilingüe iniciado en el Grado en Administración y Dirección de Empresas de la Facultad de CC. Económicas y Empresariales plantea la introducción de AICLE a medida que avanzan los cursos (Lario y Vázquez, 2011). Las asignaturas a impartir en lengua inglesa se definen en tres niveles de integración: • Nivel I (N1): la docencia se realiza íntegramente en castellano, así como los exámenes de los alumnos, trabajos realizados por los mismos el alumno, etc. La bibliografía puede incluir tanto libros, artículos, documentos, etc. en castellano como en inglés. • Nivel II (N2): la docencia se realiza en castellano pero el material de apoyo en clases (transparencias, artículos de debate, bibliografía, etc.) será en inglés. Los trabajos presentados por los alumnos, así como el examen pueden realizarse en castellano o inglés. • Nivel III (N3): toda la actividad se realizará en inglés (desarrollo de las clases, transparencias, exámenes, trabajos de los alumnos, etc.). De esta manera el grado de inmersión en la lengua inglesa es progresivo a medida que avanzan los cursos, ya que en el primer año todas las asignaturas se imparten en español aunque ciertas de ellas hacen uso del nivel 1, es decir tiene la posibilidad de consultar bibliografía en inglés. La asignatura Foundations of Business Administration, que pertenece al segundo curso del Grado en Administración y Dirección de Empresas, se imparte en lengua inglesa en el nivel 3, es decir toda la actividad relacionada con esta asignatura se realiza en inglés. Uno de los recursos docentes utilizados por los docentes de esta asignatura es el Método del Caso. La Facultad de CC Económicas y Empresariales es miembro del European Case Clearing House (ECCH, (www.ecch.com), una institución educativa que,

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a nivel internacional, proporciona a sus socios casos prácticos en todas las áreas de la Economía y la Dirección de Empresas para una mejor formación de los estudiantes. El Método del Caso es una técnica de aprendizaje activa, en la que el estudiante reflexiona sobre un problema real acaecido en el ámbito empresarial. A través de este modelo de aprendizaje, iniciado en Harvard en los años 20, el alumno desarrolla su capacidad de analizar, valorar y actuar en situaciones que pueda encontrar en un futuro cuando desarrolle su actividad profesional. En el método del caso se dan diferentes etapas: en la primera de ellas el alumno lee con detenimiento el caso en cuestión de manera individual; a continuación pasa a debatirlo en pequeños grupos para posteriormente hacerlo de manera guiada bajo la tutela del profesor que orienta y por último se analizan y evalúan las distintas soluciones al caso y se estudian las conclusiones. El Método del Caso (MdC) permite simular una gran cantidad de tomas de decisión de un modo realista y controlado. La actividad que se les ofreció a los especialistas de la mencionada asignatura fue proponer una serie de estrategias con el fin de que los estudiantes llegaran a una mejor comprensión del texto facilitándoles su lectura. Para ello los estudiantes debían realizar una serie de actividades relacionadas tanto con el contenido del caso como con la lengua inglesa de manera que mejoraran su conocimiento de la materia y su competencia lingüística en la lengua inglesa aplicada a la gestión de empresas. El uso de las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación (TICs) es ya algo inherente a la enseñanzaaprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras, el debate se presenta en cuanto a la manera en que se éstas se utilizan. But during the 1990s the question gradually changed from “Should the computer be used in second language teaching?” to “How can the computer best be used in language teaching?”As we enter the 21st century, everyday language used is so tied to technology that learning language through technology has become a fact of life with important implications for all applied linguistics (Chapelle, 2001: 1). Las actividades diseñadas se desarrollaron utilizando la herramienta educativa Hot Potatoes que permite crear ejercicios de diversa índole (emparejamiento, respuesta corta, verdadero/falso, etc.), los que posteriormente pueden publicarse en el Campus Virtual de la asignatura en cuestión. Tiene de ventaja que es auto corregible, permite, por tanto, que el propio alumno sea capaz de ver dónde está el error cometido.

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La lectura La lectura es esencial para la adquisición de conocimiento y se convierte en una herramienta indispensable para el estudio en el caso de los alumnos universitarios. Hoy en día, debido a la importancia del inglés como lengua franca, estos estudiantes se encuentran ante el reto de enfrentarse a la lectura de textos especializados en una segunda lengua. The dominance of English has transformed the educational experiences and professional lives of countless students and academics across the planet. Fluency in the conventions of English academic discourse is now virtually essential as a means of gaining access to the knowledge of our disciplines and navigating our careers (Hyland, 2004: IX). Bernhardt (1991) afirma que la comprensión lectora es un proceso activo que relaciona la información nueva con la almacenada en la memoria del lector. Es por ello que el conocimiento del tema en cuestión es uno de los factores que puede influir más directamente con la comprensión del texto como indica Brantmeier (2001: 332): When topic familiarity levels of participants are high, comprehension scores are higher. Lack of topic familiarity inhibits comprehension. When planning courses and selecting reading materials, instructors should take into account the readers’ interests, gender, and backgrounds. Con el objetivo de mejorar la comprensión lectora del alumnado, en este trabajo se presentan una serie de estrategias de aprendizaje que ayuden a optimizar la competencia lingüística de los estudiantes y consecuentemente su conocimiento específico sobre el tema a tratar. Son numerosos los autores que han analizado las distintas estrategias de lectura tanto en papel como en línea (Hosenfeld, 1977, Block, 1986, Barnett, 1988, Anderson, 1991, Cohen, 1998; Akyel & Ercetin, 2009). Desde los primeros estudios referentes a la comprensión lectora a lo largo de los años han ido sugiriendo diferentes variables a considerar: niveles de lectura, cultura, interacción con la lengua materna, entre otros. Autores como Carrell (1998: 3) son de la opinión de que la distinción entre estrategias de lectura y ciertos procesos cognitivos es muy difícil de establecer: “Reading strategies can be virtually impossible to distinguish from other cognitive processes related to thinking, reasoning, studying, or motivational strategies”. En este trabajo no se ha seguido ninguna de las taxonomías de los distintos estudiosos, pues como indica Chamot (2004), las estrategias utilizadas dependerán de las necesidades de los alumnos y de los objetivos

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del profesor. Nos hemos centrados en estrategias de nivel textual, como activar el conocimiento previo, predecir, skimming y scanning y de nivel de palabra, como adivinar el significado de las palabras por el contexto, identificar las categorías gramaticales e identificar prefijos y sufijos. Objetivos La comprensión lectora es una destreza imprescindible para una correcta adquisición de la lengua. En el caso de la lengua extranjera, el proceso de comprensión lectora se convierte en una herramienta esencial para la adquisición de la lengua meta (L2). Para los estudiantes de Administración y Dirección de Empresas la lectura es una destreza de gran importancia para moverse en contextos internacionales, como indica Grabe (2002: 49): “the ability to read in a second language (L2) is one of the most important skills required of people in multilingual and international settings”. Con el fin de conseguir el objetivo general de facilitar al estudiante la comprensión del caso en cuestión los objetivos específicos a conseguir con este proyecto fueron varios: • Facilitarles una serie de estrategias en cuanto al uso de los diccionarios • Ofrecerles actividades variadas a través del Campus Virtual para la mejor comprensión de los textos • Proporcionar una guía gramatical en línea para que el alumno pudiera solventar sus dudas de manera autónoma. • Diseñar una serie de estrategias que permitieran la comprensión de la terminología relativa a la dirección de empresas en el grupo de docencia mixta inglés-español • Fomentar la autonomía del alumno en su formación tanto de contenidos como de la lengua extranjera a través de las TIC’s.

Metodología Para llevar a cabo el proyecto se diseñaron una serie de documentos de apoyo a considerar antes de iniciar las actividades de lectura. Se consideró de interés dar una serie de pautas muy claras al estudiante para enfrentarse de manera eficaz al texto en cuestión. • “Guía para la lectura de textos científicos extensos” especificando los distintos pasos a seguir anterior, durante y posterior a la lectura del caso • “Guía para el uso de diccionarios monolingües on line”

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El primero de estos documentos brinda la oportunidad de despertar el interés del lector sobre el tema (Razi, 2004). El objetivo en una primera fase es instar a la reflexión sobre distintos aspectos el texto que se va a leer: procedencia, tipo de texto, partes del mismo, lectura del título y epígrafes, etc. Posteriormente se presentan una serie de actividades que se realizarán durante la lectura del texto y finalmente las actividades a realizar para recordar lo leído. Asimismo se les ofrecieron una serie de consejos para facilitar la lectura, como: procurar no abusar del diccionario, intentar ignorar aquellas palabras que parecen no tener demasiado interés para una correcta comprensión, confeccionar un glosario, entre otras. La “Guía para el uso de diccionarios monolingües on line”. Se trata de información práctica sobre el diccionario Cambridge, disponible en línea. La página presenta una serie de diccionarios monolingües: diccionario de inglés británico, uno de inglés americano, un diccionario de inglés para los negocios, y otro para learners. Estos diccionarios contienen información muy útil para los alumnos tales como: categoría morfológica, trascripción fonética, pronunciación tanto en inglés británico como en inglés americano así como su definición en inglés; en caso de no entender alguna de las palabras utilizadas para la definición, al hacer doble clic sobre ésta, el diccionario redirige a la definición de esa nueva palabra. En la parte superior derecha de la pantalla, bajo el epígrafe “in other dictionaries”, se da la opción de buscar el término en otros diccionarios, con el fin de comparar definiciones. Debajo de esto, se encuentra el apartado de “more results”, en el que aparecen varias expresiones o palabras compuestas que contienen el término en cuestión. En resumen, se trata de una aplicación muy práctica y fácil de utilizar, es además una herramienta más rápida y atractiva para los alumnos que el tradicional diccionario en papel.

Actividades El texto utilizado constaba de unas 3500 palabras e incluía gráficos y tablas. Comenzando por el título, el texto se fue presentando paulatinamente de manera que el alumno no se enfrentaba a todo el texto en su conjunto. A continuación y tras cada párrafo o párrafos se especificaban las actividades a llevar a cabo. Actividad 1: Comprensión del título. Comprender el título es de suma importancia ya que permite tener una idea general sobre el tema del que va a tratar el texto. En esta actividad se planteó al alumno una serie de cuestiones con el fin de llegar a una correcta comprensión del título. Entre otras destacamos: detectar las palabras más importantes del título y reflexionar sobre el vocabulario que esperan encontrar en el texto. También se incidió en saber interpretar las combinaciones de palabras (por ejemplo, Italian Real Estate

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Sector). El título del caso era: “Pirelli Real Estate: Managing Organizational Growth in the Italian Real Estate Sector”. Actividad 2: Predecir el significado de ciertas palabras a través del contexto. En este apartado se presentaba al alumno el primer párrafo de la introducción del texto con una serie de palabras subrayadas que se consideraron esenciales para su comprensión y se formularon una serie de preguntas: En esta actividad se anima al alumno a hacer una lectura sin demasiado detenimiento ya que aún es la introducción. A continuación se muestra una ilustración con la actividad.

Ilustración 1: Actividad 2

Actividad 3: Uso del diccionario en línea. Como continuación a la actividad anterior se les proporciona a los alumnos un enlace que lleva a la versión electrónica de diferentes diccionarios Cambridge on line. You need to understand the main vocabulary in the introduction because these words will appear constantly in the text and it will be easier if you write a glossary from the beginning. Click on http://

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dictionary.cambridge.org/ Actividad 4: Apoyarse en elementos gráficos (como tablas o gráficos) para entender mejor el significado de un texto. En esta actividad se anima a los estudiantes a comprender la información del texto interpretando los datos que se ofrecen en una tabla en este caso. Normalmente el alumnado de titulaciones como Administración y Dirección de Empresas está habituado a utilizar esta forma de organizar información. Actividad 5: Identificar los puntos principales de varios párrafos a través de la técnica “skimming”. En este ejercicio se insertó un texto de unas 500 palabras y se pidió a los alumnos que identificaran las ideas principales del texto, sin detenerse a averiguar el significado de cada palabra que leyeran, simplemente debían captar la idea general y contestar a una serie de preguntas. Esta técnica se utiliza sobre todo cuando los alumnos tienen que leer textos largos. Posteriormente debían enlazar definiciones con palabras destacadas en el texto. De esta manera se conseguía centrar su atención en ciertos términos de claro interés para su aprendizaje. Sometimes one way of identifying the main points is to skim the text. Skimming is used to identify quickly the main ideas of a text. Do not stop at each word but try to get the general meaning of the text. Read the text and answer the following questions Actividad 6: Buscar información concreta en un texto a través de la técnica de Scanning. Se propuso a los alumnos una serie de afirmaciones sobre un texto de unas 700 palabras sobre las que tenían que decidir si eran o no ciertas, en el caso de las falsas tenían que justificar su respuesta. Los alumnos leían primero las afirmaciones y después escaneaban el texto en busca de dichas afirmaciones. Scanning is a technique you often use when you are looking for specific information. Read the text and decide if the following statements are true or false. You need to justify the false statements. Actividad 7: Predecir el significado de una palabra a través del contexto sin utilizar el diccionario. A pesar de la importancia del diccionario para consultar el significado de los términos desconocidos, en ocasiones el uso frecuente de éste ralentiza la comprensión del texto. Por esta razón, ser capaz de deducir significados a través del contexto es una técnica muy eficaz en la lectura de textos. En la siguiente ilustración se muestra la actividad propuesta.

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Ilustración 2: Actividad 7

Actividad 8: Predecir la información que se va a exponer en el texto basándose en la información leída previamente. Se propuso una actividad en la que se eliminaron varias palabras del texto y los alumnos tenían que colocar una serie de palabras propuestas en los huecos correspondientes, como se muestra en la siguiente imagen.

Ilustración 3: Actividad 8

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Actividad 9: Predecir el significado de las palabras a través de su formación. Los prefijos y sufijos pueden cambiar el significado de las palabras de las que forman parte. Por esta razón es importante que el alumno sea capaz de reconocerlos y deducir el significado de ciertas palabras a través de ellos.

Conclusión El Aprendizaje Integrado de Contenidos y Lenguas Extranjeras (AICLE) es una forma más de perfeccionar el conocimiento de una segunda lengua ya que permite aprender sobre una materia especializada en otra lengua distinta de la materna. El método del caso es muy idóneo para utilizarse en un planteamiento AICLE y es la lectura la base sobre la que se asienta. La necesidad de mejorar la destreza de la lectura comprensiva en la segunda lengua por parte de los alumnos del grado bilingüe de Administración y Dirección de Empresas es un punto importante en su formación, pues éstos tienen que enfrentarse a documentos, informes, artículos y textos de distinta índole en lengua inglesa. Las estrategias que se desarrollaron a través de las actividades diseñadas y expuestas anteriormente ayudan a los alumnos a ser conscientes de su propio aprendizaje y reflexionar sobre la lengua meta. Para ello el uso correcto del diccionario, la capacidad de deducir significados a través del contexto, la habilidad de decidir la información relevante sirven para mejorar su capacidad lectora de los estudiantes de una segunda lengua. El objetivo final que se ha perseguido es que a través de estas actividades el alumno sea capaz de poner en práctica estas estrategias y aplicarlas cuando se enfrente a textos en lengua extranjera de manera autónoma.

Bibliografía Akyel, A., & Ercetin, G. (2009). “Hypermedia Reading Strategies employed by Advanced Learners of English”. System, 37: 136-152. Anderson, N. J. (1991). “Individual Differences in Strategy Use in Second Language Reading and Testing”. The Modern Language Journal, 75: 460-472. Barnett, M. A. (1988). “Reading through Context: How real and perceived Strategies Use affects L2 Comprehension”. Modern Language Journal, 72: 150-162. Bernhardt, E. B. (1991). Reading Development in a Second Language. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

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Block, E. (1986). “The Comprehension Strategies of Second Language Readers”. TESOL Quarterly, 20:163-494. Brantmeier, C. (2001). “Language Reading on Passage Content and Gender: Challenges for the IntermediateLevel Curriculum”. Foreign Language Annals, 34, 4: 325- 333. Brown, H. D. (1987). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Carrell, P. (1998). “Can Reading Strategies be Successfully Taught?” Australian Review of Applied Linguistics 21, 1: 1-20. Chamot, A. U. (2004). “Issues in Language Learning Strategy Research and Teaching”. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching 2004 1,1: 14-26. Chapelle, C. A. (2001). Computer Applications in Second Language Adquisition: Foundations for Teaching, Testing and Research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cohen, A. D. (1998). Strategies in learning and using a second language. New York: Longman. Coyle, D., Hood, P., Marsh, D. (2010). CLIL: Content and Language Integrated Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Grabe, W. (2002). “Reading in a Second Language in R. Kaplan, (Ed.) (2002). The Oxford Handbook of Applied Linguistics. New York, Oxford University Press: 49-59. Hosenfeld, C. (1977). “A Preliminary Investigation of the Reading Strategies of Successful and Nonsuccessful Second Language Learners”. System, 5: 110-123. Hyland, K. (2004). Genre and Second Language Writing. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. Lario de Oñate, M. C. y M. Vázquez Amador (2011). “La comprensión lectora en el aprendizaje integrado de contenidos y lenguas extranjeras (AICLE)”. Experiencias docentes innovadoras en la educación superior. Madrid: Educación Editora: 171-177. Mehisto, P., Marsh, D. & Frigols, M. J. (2008). Uncovering CLIL. Oxford: Macmillan.

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Linguistic Barriers in Doctor-Patient Communication in Algeria Khadidja Belaskri University of Tlemcen, Algeria

Abstract The Algerian physicians are taught and trained exclusively in French. It enables them to be more informative when they speak about symptoms, diagnosis and treatments but they are likely to be unintelligible to patients. Furthermore, offering an appropriate translation is not an easy task, particularly when trying to find equivalents of highly technical terms in the Algerian Arabic. Our purpose is to report on communication problems that occur during the medical consultations, as a result of the existence of linguistic barriers between the Algerian doctors and patients. This study was conducted at the hospital of Sidi Bel Abbes, a town in the Northwest of Algeria. The sample population consisted of 53 patients and 60 doctors. 50.94% of the interviewed patients claimed that they did not receive sufficient information from their doctors due to their frequent use of French and the medical jargon. The majority of doctors admitted that French was a language barrier to effective communication between them and patients, and that it is difficult for them to translate the medical jargon to colloquial Arabic.

Key Words: Doctor-Patient communication – Linguistic Barriers – Language Differences – Medical jargon – Translation difficulties.

Las barreras lingüísticas en la comunicación médico-paciente en Argelia

Resumen Los médicos argelinos se educan y hacen las prácticas exclusivamente en francés. Gracias a la jerga médica,

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esta lengua les permite ser más precisos cuando se refieren a los síntomas, el diagnóstico y los tratamientos pero los pacientes apenas comprenden las explicaciones. Es más, resulta complicado encontrar una traducción adecuada al Árabe Argelino, especialmente cuando se trata de términos técnicos sofisticados. Nuestro objetivo es analizar los problemas de comunicación que se producen en las consultas médicas debido a la existencia de barreras lingüísticas entre los pacientes y los médicos argelinos. Este estudio se llevó a cabo en el Hospital de Sidi Bel Abbes, ciudad situada en el noroeste de Argelia. La muestra se compone de 53 pacientes y 60 médicos. Un 50,94% de los pacientes entrevistados afirma que no reciben la información necesaria porque, con frecuencia, los médicos se dirigen a ellos en francés y utilizan jerga médica. La mayoría de los médicos admite que el uso del francés es una barrera que les impide una comunicación fluida con los pacientes y, además, les resulta difícil traducir las palabras de la jerga médica al árabe coloquial.

Palabras clave: Comunicación entre doctor y paciente –Barreras lingüísticas – Diferencias linguïsticas– Jerga médica –Dificultades de traducción.

Introduction In multilingual contexts, it is likely that language disparities impact communication between doctors and patients. Actually, there is a large number of researches in social sciences and other disciplines dealing with language use in doctor-patient communication, e.g. Woloshin et al. (1995), Joos et al. (1996), Jacobs et al. (2001), who stress the importance of effective communication between doctors and patients for good health outcomes. Algeria is characterized by an unbalanced Arabic/French bilingualism at both micro and macro levels. French it is not parceled out equally across the Algerian population. It is largely monopolised by the urban rather than the rural, the rich rather than the poor, the educated rather than the uneducated. Thus, bilingualism in Algeria is not homogeneous; it is rather heterogeneous. One can meet people with different degrees of proficiency and ‘bilinguality’ (ranging from the very high to the very low) in different parts of the country. Hamers and Blanc (2000: 06) define bilinguality as a state of an individual who has the opportunity to use more than one linguistic code for social communication, while bilingualism is the result

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of the spread of some bilinguality among members of a community. Many Algerians understand French but cannot speak it, others may have no understanding or knowledge of French at all. This situation generates some communication problems between speaker and non-speakers of French, especially, in some contexts where French dominates like in medical settings. Doctors and medical students become deeply influenced by French and the medical jargon in their linguistic behavior because they are taught and trained exclusively in French, they feel more comfortable speaking to each other in the language in which they have acquired medical knowledge. It is worth mentioning here that Algerians use one of the existing colloquial verities in their everyday conversations, i.e., the Algerian Arabic dialects or Berber dialects that unlike French and standard Arabic do not receive linguistic updates like other languages of science. Thus, I suppose that it is inevitable to suffer from failure in communication when doctors are confronted with patients lacking proficiency in French. They are likely to meet difficulties to use an intelligible language free of French and jargon when dealing with patients with low educational and social backgrounds. Hence, patients may not understand their doctors and follow their instructions. The current study examines communication problems that are induced by the coexistence of several language varieties in Algeria. Focus will be mainly put on the relevant issue that while there is an overall bilingualism among doctors, patients are not all bilinguals. Moreover, the medical context requires doctors to use a specific register that is characterised by the use of French and medical jargon and it is not evident to immediately find equivalents of highly medical technical terms in the local non-standard varieties.

Methodology and research instruments A mixed research methodology was used to collect data at some private medical offices and the university hospital of Sidi Bel Abbes, a town in the Northwest of Algeria. Indeed, mexied research is by no means aiming at replacing either of qualitative or quantitative approaches. Rather, it attempts to draw from their strengths to minimize their weaknesses (Johnson et al., 2004: 14-15). In addition, using mixed approaches has three broad advantages. First, it allows the researcher to inspect and confirm data through the use of multiple research perspectives and tools; second, to elaborate and develop a thorough analysis which yields more valuable details; and third, to improve the researcher’s awareness and to provide a better insight to deal with conflicts and paradoxes between the two data sources. (Vitale et al., 2008: 90). A researcher-completed questionnaire was used to interview 53 patients. This approach was used because

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patients might have different social backgrounds and might not all be able to read, write or even understand the questions. It allowed me to paraphrase or translate, when necessary, either to Algerian Arabic or to French to solve problems of misunderstandings, to ask for additional details that appeared to be valuable or that helped me confirm suspicion and deal with paradoxes. On the other hand, due to the busy-nature of the doctors’ work, I decided upon a respondent-completed questionnaire approach which allowed me to put doctors at ease. Besides, a number of questionnaires were sent to doctors via emails and the social networking services. All in all, 60 questionnaires were completed and returned. Other unstructured interviews were conducted with patients, and doctors. This aimed at validating the quantitative data, in particular. Additionally, the researcher observed language use and interactions in the hospital hallways, and consultation rooms.

Research results and discussion Patients’ vs. doctors’ self-assessment of proficiency in French A question was asked to both doctors and patients to examine the doctors’ level of French proficiency and then compared it with the patients’ level of understanding French so that I can determine whether there exists a linguistic gap between doctors and patients. The results show that the majority of doctors ranked themselves in the ‘Excellent’ and the ‘Good’ categories with 31.36% and 61.66%, respectively, while, few patients ranked themselves in these two categories. The lowest levels in understanding French obtained the highest percentages by patients. Doctors’ self-assessment of proficiency in

Patients’ ability to understand

French

French Competency

Competency degree Percentage (%)

degree

Percentage (%)

Weak

0

Weak

32 .07

Average

6.66

Average

37.73

Good

61.66

Good

28.3

Excellent

31.66

Excellent

1.88

Table I. Doctors’ vs patients’ proficiency in French

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XII Congreso AELFE (2013) The frequency of use of French

I also compared doctors’ and patients’ French use frequency in day-to-day conversations within four categories as shown in the figure below.

Never 0%

Doctors Sometimes Often 3 .33% 33.033%

Always 63.33%

Never 26.41%

Patients Sometimes Often 50.94% 13.20%

Always 7.54%

Table II. Doctors’ vs patients’ frequency of use of French

There is a remarkable divergence in the contrasting rates of the frequency of use of French between doctors and patients. A percentage of 63.33 of doctors said that they always used French, while only 7.54% of patients said they always used it. In the ‘Often’ category doctors recorded a rate of 33.33% whereas patients’ score was 13.20%. Nearly, half the patients’ population stated that they sometimes used French, while not more than 2 doctors (3.33%) used French occasionally. These results with those of the former question reflect the existing linguistic gap between patients and doctor especially as far as French which is primary to discuss medical topics in Algeria. The study also shows that 70% of the questioned doctors said that French is the most used language at healthcare settings. On the other hand the majority of patients (86.79%) said that doctors mixed Arabic with French to talk to them. So I asked them what language doctors used most to see whether switches to French were limited to some few words or they used long stretches of sentences. The result showed that 76.08 % said that doctors used more French than Arabic. This result is supported by our own observation during data collection. I noticed that French is widely used, especially, by doctors around the different departments of the hospital. For instance, when I went the first time there to ask for a permission to carry out our research, I asked a female doctor about the office of the Head of Pedagogical Activities. I used Arabic in purpose to address her but I was surprised to be answered in French. Another example was during a visit, a female doctor was using mainly French to address a 20 years old female patient coming from a rural area with a primary educational level. Sometimes, the use of non-verbal language helped her to understand sentences that included some French words like: les poignets et les epaules /jddurru:k/? (Do you feel pain in your wrists and shoulders) showing the wrists and shoulders. But when the doctor said this: /Gu:fi/ quand on va faire le test on va être trés limité, /kajBn/ des radios et des analyses qu’on ne peut pas faire euh euh /kifaG ngu:llBk/ pour explorer euh /baG nʔeksplori ʔddor li rah fik ʕlabal/ le bébé (Look, we will be very limited in the test that we will do. There are some x-rays and biological tests that we cannot do to, euh euh, how to tell you, to explore, euh, to explore your

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disease because of the baby). The doctor switched between Algerian Arabic and French. Hesitation proves that these switches were due to linguistic deficiency in Algerian Arabic to speak about medical matters and that she was aware about the patients’ inability to understand her. Notably, when she attempted to use some Arabic, the doctor translated the French word ‘explorer’ (to explore) simply by adapting it morphologically to Algerian Arabic /nʔeksplori/, however, though Algerian Arabic contains many French words that have been adapted to Arabic, this word is not used in the Algerian dialects and cannot be understood by nonspeakers of French.

The patients’ need for French The aim of this question was to check whether patients felt the necessity to speak French in order to discuss and get access to medical information. The majority of patients (92.45 %) wish they could speak French. They believed that a good mastery of French would help them understand better their illnesses, and to effectively communicate with doctors. To illustrate, here are some of the patients’ comments on the importance of French in medical encounters: - I wish I can understand what doctors say about my disease to other doctors. - There are many doctors who use much French, female doctors in particular. - I need French because doctors explain things in French and I don’t understand it. - I need French to understand better my thyroid problem.

French as a language barrier Studying and practicing medicine in a language that is neither the country’s official language nor any Algerian’s mother tongue, and which is witnessing a sharp decline in terms of mastery and fluency at the different levels of the society, maybe one of the possible barriers that affect the doctor-patient communication.

Never 10%

Sometimes 55%

Often 25%

Always 10%

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Ninety percent of the sample population of doctors admitted that French created a language barrier to an effective communication, however, their answers ranged in terms of frequency. These results are very acceptable because French is not always used since all doctors can use Algerian Arabic. Let us consider a comment given by a doctor on this question that I posted on a medical page on facebook: Yes, French poses a problem, most of the patients do not understand it, the doctors do not know how to explain things in Arabic without recourse to French i.e., to make a scientific translation of what they have diagnosed. Within this same discussion another doctor said that: French is an unavoidable cause of communication ineffectiveness. The doctors’ comments highlighted the fact that it is difficult for them to speak about symptoms, diagnosis, treatment procedures, dosage etc., in the local language. One reason is that the Algerian Arabic is not a standard language and it is not elaborated enough to serve medical and technical matters, in contrast to French which cannot be completely avoided because of its internal structure. French possesses the necessary resources and vocabulary for a scientific interpretation. It allows doctors to express their thoughts in an accurate and explicit manner even though it is not often understood by their patients.

Medical Jargon as a language barrier Medical terminology is one of the most easily identifiable linguistic criteria in health care communication. Margaret Simmons (1998) asserts that it is difficult for any patient to use or understand scientific vocabulary. As a result, a patient cannot fully and easily take part in a conversation with a doctor. In the following examples the doctors’ use of jargon was inappropriate because the patients were old and illiterate it was impossible for them to understand the technical words. - Le cholesterol /kan talBʕ men/ les corticoides/ (Cholesterol level was high due to corticosteroids.) - /lqawlBk/ l’acide urique? (Have they found uric acid?) - /hada jGufah/ l’ORL (It’s an ENT who should see it.) Using AA to translate the medical jargon into plain language is not always an easy task. Further, what makes translating such words more problematic is that each doctor and each patient translates and interprets these terms according to his own linguistic variety (dialect) because of the coexistence of different linguistic

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varieties in Algeria. Rodreques (2004:46) refers to this as ‘semantic noise’. For example there are people who refer to the tonsillitis as /ħlaqBm / or /ħla7Bm /, others use the word /wBdni:n/ which can confuse doctors because it may be understood as ‘ears’ too. Similarly, the terms ‘diabetes’ and ‘goitre’ can be referred to as /Bssukkur/ or /lBħluwwa/, and /lʕubra/, /lɣu:ɣa/ or /lʕunq/, respectively, depending on the individual’s dialect. Besides, the message usually gets lost when translated because it is usually weakened by the use of general terms.

Conclusion Based on the obtained results and without claiming that I have carried out an exhaustive research, I can maintain that in the Algerian medical settings, due to language variation and language differences, communication problems are becoming very pronounced and deserve further investigation. Differences in linguistic proficiency in French highly impact effective doctor-patient communication and make their relationship more asymmetric. The supremacy of French over Arabic in clinical environments has deeply influenced doctors’ linguistic practices. They cannot be as informative as they could be without using French and the medical terminology. Furthermore, doctors do not only use French, they also use a great deal of jargon which is at the same time difficult to be understood by most patients, whatever their educational and linguistic background are, and very hard to be translated into a plain language. Patients with low proficiency in French have difficulties expressing their concerns verbally. Even worse, they do not ask for clarification or further explanation. They are less informed about their health condition; they are eventually less satisfied than patients with a good proficiency in French. On the other hand, Algerian Arabic vocabulary is not well established to cover the medical terminology. It merely allows patients to get general information about their diseases or it can confuse doctors if they do not interpret it accordingly.

References Hamers, J.F. and Blanc, M.H.A., (2000). (2nd ed.). Bilinguality and Bilingualism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jacobs, E.A., D.S. Lauderdale, D. Meltzer, J.M. Shorey, W. Levinson, & R.A. Thisted. (2001). “Impact of

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Interpreter Services on Delivery of Health Care to Limited-English-Proficient Patients”. Journal of General Internal Medicine 16: 468-474. Johnson, R.B., & Onwuegbuzie, A.J., (2004). “Mixed Methods Research: A Research Paradigm Whose Time Has Come”. Educational Researcher 33, 7: 14–26. Joos, S.K., D.H. Hickam, G.H. Gordon, and L.H. Baker (1996). “Effects of a Physician Communication Intervention on Patient Care Outcomes”. Journal of General Internal Medicine 11, 3: 147-155. Rodriques, M. V., (2000). Perspectives of Communication and Communicative Competence. Concept Publishing Company. (p) Ltd. Simmons, M., (1998). A sociolinguistic analysis of doctor-patient communication, in The Japan Conference on English for Specific Purposes Proceedings (Aizuwakamatsu City, Fukushima, Japan, November 8, 1997). Thomas Orr, Ed: 91-99. Vitale, D.C., Armenakis, A.A., & Field, H.S., (2008). “Integrating Qualitative and Quantitative Methods for Organizational Diagnosis: Possible Priming Effects”. Journal of Mixed Methods Research 2, 1: 87-105. Woloshin, S., Bickell, N.A., Schwartz, L.M., Gany, F., and Welch, H.G., (1995). “Language Barriers in Medicine in the United States”. Journal of the American Medical Association. 273, 9: 724-728.

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Experiencing Vocabulary Learning Using Small Language Corpora Višnja Kabalin Borenić, Department of Business Foreign Languages Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Zagreb Sanja Marinov, Department of Foreign Languages and PE Faculty of Economics, University of Split Martina Mencer Salluzzo, Department of Languages and Culture Vern – University of Applied Sciences, Zagreb

Abstract This article researches university students’ responses to a set of exercises based on authentic corpus material. It aims to add to the database of potential exercises derived directly from corpus material. The research involved 51 students of business and tourism who were asked to complete a variety of exercises derived from corpus material and record their impressions in a journal. Since they combine quantitative and qualitative data (students’ success rates and comments), our results provide reliable guidelines for the design of corpus-based exercises. Research results revealed that some learners appreciate the benefits of corpus consultation while others find it too time consuming or demanding. On the whole, the respondents recognised the benefits of autonomous learning, intensive reading and context reconstruction. We found the method beneficial and practicable for intermediate and advanced level students provided that it be introduced gradually.

Key Words: small language corpus, corpus-based exercises, vocabulary, university students, journal

Introduction Usefulness of corpus data for language teaching has long been recognised (Willis, 1993; Tribble and Jones, 1990; Krishnamurthy, 2001) and corpus informed language teaching materials are now taken for granted. A modern course book, for example, is entirely corpus-informed (McCarthy, 2004) and all major

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publishers now provide corpus-based dictionaries (O’Keeffe, A. et al., 2007: 17). Experimenting with direct application of corpus material and corpus methods in language classrooms is only relatively a recent phenomenon. Corpora and concordancing were introduced in the language-learning environment in 1969 (McEnery and Wilson, 1997: 12) but it was Tim Johns’ (1986) work and his idea of Data driven learning in the 1980s that spawned interest and further empirical research (Tribble and Jones, 1990; Stevens, 1995; Cobb, 1997). The tool, however, is not yet widely used in the language classrooms and more empirical research is needed to help disseminate the idea and encourage the use of corpus-driven activities. More importantly, the research should indicate new ways, and new language items that can be presented in this way to facilitate the application of corpus-driven activities in the classroom. This is exactly the aim of this paper: to set examples of possible tasks that can be designed using a small corpus and to analyse how students react to them, both in terms of their ability to solve the set problems and opinions/attitudes towards the given type of exercise. In doing so we hope to bring corpora directly into the classroom to help teach, explain, or practice particular language items.

Vocabulary teaching and corpora In order to be able to speak a language well it is essential to have a wide range of vocabulary. This fact is now taken for granted by both teachers and learners, but it has not always been that way. Not so long ago it was grammar that was given priority and words were seen as mere gap fillers of predetermined syntactic language structures. It was the careful study of language corpora that brought evidence of a vague and almost non-existent borderline between grammar and lexis (Sinclair, 1991). Carefully sorted corpus concordance lines highlighted patterns that depend on particular lexical items rather than syntactic structures and thus revealed that each lexical item has a little “grammar” of its own. Today, we approach vocabulary teaching with this revolutionary development in our minds. Furthermore, regular language classes cannot cover the huge number of vocabulary items that students need to learn. Students need to be enabled to do a lot of autonomous learning and modern language instructors need to teach them both how to learn vocabulary as well as what to learn. Presenting corpus data in a variety of tasks can raise students’ awareness of what there is to learn and how to do it.

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Methodology Our sample consists of 51 undergraduate university students of economics and tourism who have been learning English between 8 and 12 years. To make the sample more representative of the student population in non-philological studies it comprises students from three different universities/faculties.

The test The students were given a test that consisted of three different exercises based on and derived from a small corpus. The corpus compiled and used in this study consists of 450 000 tokens and is therefore classified as a small corpus. It combines one register and one genre because it includes only the texts from the area of tourism, or more specifically of the tour guides of the Mediterranean countries. It was originally compiled as a source of corpus-derived exercises in a project carried out with students of tourism (Marinov, 2011) but is now used for teaching purposes to address particular language issues when necessary. Each exercise aims at a particular language problem that we believed students at this level of language learning should be able to cope with and understand but not without some difficulty. We concentrated on teaching vocabulary as it is believed that lexical information is much easier for learners to notice and study (Gaskell and Cobb, 2004). Wanting to include the elements of “student research” and knowing that students find coping with the whole range of lines so discouraging that they prefer and need guidance (Marinov, 2011), we provided the material in the form of a shortened concordance. Our research included three different exercises as described below.

Task 1 – the verb “run” This task consists of an 83-line-long concordance of the verb “run.” Concordance is a screen display or printout of a chosen word or phrase in its different contexts, with that word or phrase arranged down the centre of the display along with the text that comes before and after it (McCarthy, 2004). The task concentrates on meanings. “Run” is a word all our students are familiar with but only with a narrow range of its meanings. The aim of this exercise is, therefore, to extend this range and possibly raise the students’ awareness that many other highly frequent words have additional meanings to be learnt. In the “Mediterranean Europe” corpus there are as many as 562 tokens of “run” so the concordance had

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to be shortened. In order not to lose authenticity of the corpus data by editing it (Flowerdew, 1996), we used the WordSmith tool feature to shorten the concordance automatically and this resulted in 83 lines. The concordance was then right-sorted, i.e. arranged alphabetically to the right of the node word. Observing the students’ responses we wanted to find out the following: • how many and which of the present meanings the students managed to identify • which of the meanings were more easily identifiable

Task 2 The students were required to complete 14 gapped sentences with one of the two phrasal verbs: make for or make up for, and organize the information in their personal vocabulary files by defining the meaning and providing an example sentence for each phrasal verb. Finally, the students were asked to comment on the task so that we could determine these: I The overall accuracy (score) expressed in percentages. II Which of the phrasal verbs was understood better and used more correctly. III Whether there is a connection between the score achieved and the students’ perception of task difficulty.

Task 3 In Task 3 students were asked to study the 16 examples and deduct if there was any difference in usage between made from and made of. They were then, same as in Task 1, asked to make a vocabulary file entry for each of the collocations. In the journal entry, they had to note their impressions and possible difficulties in solving the task.

Journal Along with the corpus data the students were asked to keep a journal in which they noted their opinions,

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feelings, and difficulties encountered while doing each of the assigned tasks. The journal consisted of generic questions and questions related to specific tasks. Students were also asked to explain the path they were taking while trying to solve the tasks.

Analysis Journal questions 1 and 2 The

introductory

generic

questions

were

as

follows:

“Have

you

already

encountered

this method of discovering meanings and studying new vocabulary and its usage?” and “Do you use search engines? Why? and When?” As regards the familiarity with similar tasks, the majority of students (N = 39) responded negatively. When asked whether, why, and when they used internet search engines most students (44) answered affirmatively, but indicated different level of frequency. Judging by the answers obtained, we can conclude that the majority interpreted search engines as Internet, Google translator or computers in general. Several students mentioned that they used search engines to verify expressions they cannot find in dictionaries. Three students mentioned wanting to see the context in which a particular phrase or expression is used. Finally, only one student mentioned looking for a similar authentic document in the target language. It is obvious that students should be given some direct, explicit instructions about the differences between online dictionaries and search engines, and should be taught how to use internet search engines to advance their language learning.

Task analysis Task 1 – meanings of “run” The 83-line-long concordance included ten different meanings/usages of “run”. Their frequency was established and is presented in the second column of Table 1.

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Meaning manage, operate, organize transport, drive, ride cost last stretch expire dilapidated go berserk read to include everything within a group or type

Frequency

Identified

42 25 3 1 6 1 1 1 1

correctly 94% 96% 39% 49% 53% 61% 29.5% 4% 9.8%

1

5.8%

Table 1: Meanings/usages of the verb “run” in the 83-line-long concordance from the corpus “Mediterranean Europe”

The sample as a whole managed to identify all ten meanings of the verb but with varying success. The most easily identifiable senses were 1 and 2, which were also the two most frequent senses in the concordance. The rate of noticing is obviously related but not directly to the frequency of occurrence as can be seen from the example of the next most frequently noticed sense (expire) which appears only once in the concordance. In other words, there is no clear and measurable connection between frequency of occurrence and the rate of recognition of a particular sense. The rate of recognition can be influenced by a number of factors such as: an existent passive/active knowledge of the word/sense, the immediate context, language proficiency, seriousness with which a student has tackled the task (motivation, interest, patience) which in itself could be a topic of another, separate research. Students have also “invented” some meanings of their own. They treated different uses of the same sense as separate senses. Most frequently they interpreted the passive usage of “run” as in “well-run” or “run by” as separate senses (24%). Students’ comments allowed us to establish how much they liked the exercise, what were the major difficulties encountered and strategies used in finding the solutions. Content analysis of students’ responses is presented in Table 2.

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Comment/idea General impressions easy/initial problems quickly resolved interesting/useful interesting but... confusing/difficult/long Major difficulties encountered difficult to distinguish between the meanings lacking or difficult context understand the meaning but cannot explain time consuming Strategies used used Internet/dictionaries to find out re-reading careful analysis and concentration (which is good

Frequency

and helps acquisition)

13 10 5 9 7 5 6 15 7 2

Table 2: Students’ opinions/comments on Task 1: different senses of the verb “run”

Quoted below are two students’ exact words which we selected as extreme examples of the two ends of a spectrum of opinions.

Task 2 – phrasal verbs “make for” and “make up for”

The compounded score for all students revealed a satisfactory overall accuracy with 80% of all sentences completed correctly. More than 50% of students made fewer than 2 mistakes. At the other end of the spectrum, there were 9.8% students with 7 or fewer correct answers. Altogether, the students had more difficulty understanding make for than make up for. The connection between the score and perception of task difficulty could only be examined for the 19

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students who made comments about the difficulty. The score and the perceived task difficulty corresponded in 9 cases only. By contrast, 4 students with high scores found the task difficult and expressed uncertainty about their answers and 6 students with very low scores maintained the task was easy. To conclude, the correct and incorrect perception of task difficulty and one’s achievement appeared to be equally widespread, which we found surprising as one would expect a higher level of self-awareness among university students. Task 3 – difference between made of and made from

Quality of

No. of

answers

students

0

14

1

14

2

10

Strategies applied No effort made - no difference noticed Strategies applied led to mistaken conclusions Difference briefly explained (from

Perceived level of difficulty An easy task An easy task

An easy task

dictionary) Correct definitions provided with good 3

13

examples of usage and explanation of one’s

A difficult task

analytical approach / the logic applied

Students’ answers were evaluated on a scale from 0 to 3: 0 - no answer or completely wrong, 1- fair, 2 - good, and 3 - very good. The overview of their answers and journal comments is presented in the Table 3.

Table 3: Students’ answers to Task 3: deducting the difference in meaning between made of and made from The quality of students’ answers was inversely proportionate to the perceived level of task difficulty: the students who invested no or little effort found the task easy, whereas the students who chose to ponder the

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sentences and work out the meaning for themselves found the task difficult but interesting and rewarding. Clearly, this kind of task is best suited for highly-motivated, curious, and committed students. Journal questions 4 and 5 Having completed three different corpus-based exercises the students were required to outline what they saw as the particular benefits of this approach to language learning and suggest potential users. The analysis of students’ answers regarding the advantages of corpus-based exercises revealed the following: Praise to the inductive approach and learner autonomy. A significant number of students (19) appreciated the inductive approach and learner empowerment. They found that corpus-based exercises developed skills important for increasing the quality of learning and understanding through parallel observation of different examples of usage, practical application of knowledge, autonomy in establishing rules, creation of meaning from context and discovering relations between language phenomena. 2. Strong emphasis on the importance of context. Many students (18) emphasised the importance of context, especially as it prevents literal translation, underpins deduction of meaning and enhances long-term memory. 3. Generally positive remarks about the method. A significant number of students thought that corpus-based approach enhanced vocabulary learning (12) and was more interesting than traditional ways of learning (9). A smaller group appreciated the intense practice, focus on details (4), the abundance of examples (3) and positive effects of the interaction between existing and newly acquired knowledge (3). Finally, as regards the potential beneficiaries of this approach, students’ responses fall into several distinct groups. Emphasis on learners’ desire to learn. Answers in this group (21) revolve around the idea of the desire to learn as a prerequisite for employing this method. Seventeen students would recommend this approach to persons willing to invest effort and actively engage in building their vocabulary, either for study or for work, and the remaining four would recommend it to those whose English is weak but who wished to learn more.

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Emphasis on level of English 22 comments (44%) mention or focus on prospective learners’ level of English. Most students who fall into this group believe this approach suits advanced learners (15), which qualification can include high school students as well. Three respondents would recommend it to individuals who are too self-confident about their level of English. Three students believe even the beginners in primary education would benefit from this method and one thinks that both advanced learners and beginners would find it beneficial. Finally, three students think the approach would be useful for people with specific vocabulary problems. Emphasis on learners’ professional or academic needs This group recommends the method to individuals who are interested in the English language itself, who focus on details, i.e. to language students (3) or to Croatian politicians because they “constantly embarrass us with their horrible English” (2). Negative attitude There are three students who would not recommend this approach to anyone.

Conclusion Using authentic corpus material is a rather innovative and insufficiently explored teaching/learning method. In this research three corpus-based tasks were given to university students of business and tourism and their responses were analyzed with respect to both accuracy/new learning, as well as to their comments about this teaching/learning approach. All three exercises presented a challenge to most students and made them develop own strategies for finding solutions and answers. In line with previous empirical studies our research has shown that certain learners appreciate the benefits of corpus consultation while others find it too time consuming or demanding (Chambers & O’Sullivan, 2004; Chambers, 2005). Each of the three exercises caused different problems but they also presented some common ground such as the lack of context, difficult context, or the need to invest more time and concentration on intensive reading. For some students the strategy of intensive and concentrated reading made up for the lacking context that they thus managed to construct. Intensive reading is a skill that is rarely practiced in regular language courses. Therefore, the best practice would be to introduce corpus and intensive reading gradually, as a long-term process and an integral part of the overall

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language-learning process (Kennedy and Miceli, 2001). The problem of non-existent context can also be tackled by encouraging students to use various reference materials and examine longer stretches of source texts. A clear focus on independent acquiring of new knowledge has also been recognised, combining more familiar with less familiar. The process of language recycling, which helps shifting passive into the active usage, is thus also initiated. The depth and long-term knowledge retention is recognized as the main advantage of this approach. Apart from recognising the value of learning vocabulary through several contextual encounters (Cobb, 1997) certain students have also found the tasks to be challenging and therefore more motivating than traditional types of exercises. The complexity of the task increased motivation for higher (upperintermediate or advanced) level language learners, while it decreased for those at lower levels. Finally, appreciation of skills developed in the course of doing the exercises (parallel observation, practical application of knowledge, establishing rules, drawing conclusions, deduction of meaning from context, finding relations between language phenomena) clearly emphasise the importance of procedural knowledge that is enhanced by this approach. Based on the obtained data and students’ journal responses, we can conclude that the method is beneficial and practicable for intermediate and advance level students but the corpus data should be edited in order to suit the particular students’ needs, abilities and language proficiency. Some challenge should be provided, to provoke interest and the feeling of success, but the task should not be too long or difficult, as not to discourage the students. The list of obtained student opinions about corpus-driven learning can be used as a solid starting point for future research.

References Chambers, A. (2005). “Integrating corpus consultation procedures in language studies”. Language Learning & Technology 9, 2: 111-125. Chambers, A., & O’Sullivan, Í. (2004). “Corpus consultation and advanced learners’ writing skills in French”. ReCALL, 16, 1: 158-172. Cobb, T. (1997). “Is there any measurable learning from hands-on concordancing?”, System 25: 301-315. Flowerdew, J. (1996). “Concordancing in Language Learning”, in Pennington, M. (ed.), The Power of

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CALL: 97-113. Houston, TX: Athelstan. Gaskell, D. and Cobb, T. (2004). “Can learners use concordance feedback for writing errors?”, System 32: 301- 319 Johns, T. (1986). “Micro-concord: A language learner’s research tool”, System 14, 2: 151-162. Kennedy, C. & Miceli, T. (2001). “An evaluation of intermediate students’ approaches to corpus investigation”. Language Learning & Technology 5, 3: 77-90. Krishnamurthy, R. (2001). “Learning and Teaching through Context - A Data-driven Approach”. TESOL Spain Newsletter, 24: 9-10. Marinov, S. (2011). The role of small specialised corpus in teaching ESP, unpublished master’s thesis, University of Zadar. McCarthy, M. (2004). Touchstone - From corpus to coursebook. Cambridge: CUP. McEnery, T. and Wilson, A. (1997). “Teaching and language corpora”, ReCALL 9, 1: 5-14 O’Keeffe, A. et al. (2007). From Corpus to Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Scott, M. (2004). WordSmith Tools, version 4. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN: 0-19-459400-9. Sinclair, J.M. (1991). Corpus, concordance, collocation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stevens, V. (1995). “Concordancing with language learners: Why? When? What?” CAELL Journal 6, 2: 2-10. Tribble, C. and Jones, G. (1990). Concordances in the classroom. London: Longman. Willis, D. (1993). Syllabus, corpus and data driven learning. IATEFL Conference Report: Plenaries.

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L’intercompréhension entre langues romanes dans un monde multilingue: une façon de se rapprocher des immigrants grâce aux nouvelles technologies Mercedes Eurrutia Cavero Universidad de Murcia

Résumé La mondialisation de l’information et de la connaissance dont la diffusion se fait plus que jamais en de multiples langues grâce à Internet ne permet pas de se satisfaire d’un seul idiome, d’une seule culture de référence. Deux solutions envisagées sont valables: d’un côté, le multilinguisme ; de l’autre, l’intercompréhension qui permet d’accéder en « version originale » aux connaissances et de communiquer avec précision accordant aux peuples une véritable autonomie. Le champ d’investigation que nous nous proposons d’explorer lors de la présente étude porte sur cette dernière pratique qui offre de grandes potentialités en didactique des langues. La proximité génétique des langues sur laquelle se fonde l’intercompréhension remet au premier plan le rôle de la langue dans l’apprentissage d’une ou de plusieurs nouvelles langues proches telles que les langues romanes. Cette pratique fondée sur l’emploi des nouvelles technologies, encore à la recherche de sa place dans l’enseignement institutionnel, possède une identité basée sur des principes, des stratégies et des méthodes que nous aborderons ici. Nous nous proposons comme objectif prioritaire la diffusion de ce modèle didactique qui défend la diversité des langues dans un esprit de libre choix répondant par ce fait aux exigences de l’Union Européenne et aux besoins des immigrants et des étudiants étrangers tout particulièrement.

Mots-clé: intercompréhension, multilinguisme, immigrants, nouvelles technologies.

Abstract The globalization of information and knowledge dissemination which is more than ever in multiple languages​​

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through the Internet does not allow to satisfy one language, one culture reference. Two solutions are considered valid: on one side, multilingualism and on the other, the mutual understanding that allows access to “original” knowledge and communicate with precision giving the people a real autonomy. The field of investigation that we intend to explore in this study focuses on the latter practice has great potential in language teaching. The genetic similarity of languages based ​​ on the mutual understanding which puts the spotlight on the role of language in learning a new or more related languages ​​such as Romance languages. This practice, still seeking its place in formal education, has an identity based on principles, strategies and methods we discuss here. We propose as a priority objective the dissemination of this educational model that promotes the diversity of languages in ​​ the spirit of free choice by the fact responding to the requirements of the European Union and the needs of immigrants and international students in particular.

Keywords: mutual understanding, multilingualism, immigrants, new technologies.

1. L’intercompréhension: cadre socio-culturel, politique, pédagogique et linguistique. 1.1. Cadre socioculturel: multiculture, plurilinguisme et interculturalité. Dès une optique socioculturelle les pays européens se sont construits sur des apports successifs. Les flux migratoires, la cohabitation et l’assimilation de modes de vie, de valeurs, issus pour la plupart d’origines géographiques différentes, dépassent les domaines purement économique et politique faisant preuve de l’interdépendance entre les pays et notamment de l’interpénétration des cultures. C’est dans ce contexte que Pierre Judet de la Combe et Heinz Wismann (2004) élargissent, par rapport à Lev Vygotski (1934), les dimensions du langage en écartant l’idée de « fonction », trop près selon eux de l’idée d’outil et considèrent la langue en tant qu’expression de la culture. Le plurilinguisme est donc une réalité à la fois historique et contemporaine qui conduit à une réévaluation générale de la langue dans la voie sociale et dans l’éducation. L’étude de la langue étrangère est en premier lieu, un moyen de découverte de la propre langue car comme l’affirme Goethe «Qui ne connaît pas de langues étrangères ne sait rien de la sienne» (2001: 35); simultanément, la connaissance d’une langue étrangère est le moyen de la découverte de la relativité des points de vue et de la diversité des cultures, une

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sorte de mise en perspective de la diversité du monde et des sociétés. À la différence du multiculturalisme, notion associée dans le monde anglo-saxon à l’accueil d’immigrants, qui implique l’existence d’une simple mosaïque de cultures coexistantes dépourvue de rencontres et de partage pluriculturel, l’interculturel est une dynamique et un processus d’acceptation et de compréhension des identités culturelles. Il est donc fondamentalement utile d’intégrer une approche interculturelle dans le parcours éducatif scolaire et extrascolaire, dans le but de vaincre les préjugés et de lutter contre la discrimination sociale. Cette approche interculturelle est possible grâce à l’intercompréhension. Les nouvelles technologies jouent un rôle privilégié dans ces démarches, mais elles doivent s’intégrer à d’autres disciplines, à d’autres domaines de spécialité.

1.2. Cadre pédagogique: vers une approche interculturelle. D’après M. Denis «Le cours de langue constitue un moment privilégié qui permet à l’apprenant de découvrir d’autres perceptions et classifications de la réalité, d’autres valeurs, d’autres modes de vie » (2000: 24). Au niveau européen, l’interculturel revêt une dimension importante pour l’édification de la citoyenneté et de l’identité collective. En didactique des langues étrangères l’approche interculturelle est apparue dans les années 1970, dans un contexte migratoire européen lié à la scolarisation des enfants de migrants. Dans les années 1980, le Conseil de l’Europe encourage l’élaboration de politiques permettant la reconnaissance de la diversité culturelle comme un enrichissement et non plus comme une menace. L’interculturel est alors sorti peu à peu du champ exclusif des migrations devenant une option éducative globale et transversale. On doit à l’approche communicative la considération de la langue comme une pratique sociale «véhicule, produit et producteur de toutes les cultures», d’après R. Galisson (1991). Introduisant la notion de «lexiculture» et celle de «charge culturelle partagée» l’auteur fait une distinction entre la portée culturelle du référent et les variations de sens d’un même mot suivant l’appartenance culturelle. Enfin c’est en 1997 que M. Byram parle, pour la première fois, de compétence de communication interculturelle (cit. par Caddéo et Janet, 2013) qui exige des connaissances, des attitudes et des comportements orientés vers l’autre, considéré comme un partenaire de statut identitaire et culturel égal.

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1.3. Cadre politique de la nouvelle approche pédagogique. Sous la devise de l’Union européenne, «Unie dans la diversité», les spécialistes donnent une impulsion à la notion d’intercompréhension. Comme le disait Eco: Une Europe de polyglottes n’est pas une Europe de personnes qui parlent couramment beaucoup de langues, mais, dans la meilleure des hypothèses, de personnes qui peuvent se rencontrer en parlant chacune sa propre langue et en comprenant celle de l’autre, mais qui, ne sachant pourtant pas parler celle-ci de façon courante, en la comprenant, même péniblement, comprendraient le «génie», l’univers culturel que chacun exprime en parlant la langue de ses ancêtres et de sa tradition. (Eco, 1997: 294). On trouve dans cette citation les principes de l’intercompréhension. Le Conseil de l’Europe, en tant qu’institution, défend la construction européenne basée sur la démocratie et refuse l’acquisition d’une lingua franca, d’une langue-culture unique et hégémonique: « La richesse du patrimoine des différentes langues et cultures de l’Europe est une précieuse ressource commune qu’il faut protéger et développer » (2001: 18-19). La publication en 2001 du Cadre Européen Commun de Référence pour les langues (CECR) proposant une vision de la communication comme action, marque fondamentalement la didactique de l’enseignement des langues. Le locuteur est vu comme un acteur social. Parler, écrire et écouter, c’est agir. De là est né un concept: la perspective actionnelle. Selon C. Puren, la classe est une « société authentique à part entière » (Puren in Rosen, 2009: 23). L’apprenant réalise des tâches langagières qui font appel à plusieurs compétences et donnent lieu à des activités de production, de réception, d’interaction et de médiation, essentielles en intercompréhension. En 2003 la Commission européenne lance un plan d’action dont le but est de Promouvoir l’apprentissage des langues et la diversité linguistique. Dans ce contexte comme l’affirme Doyé «l’intercompréhension n’est plus considérée comme une utopie pour l’Union européenne plutôt comme une nécessité» (2005: 11). Néanmoins sa mise en pratique exige une nouvelle approche de l’enseignement des langues qu’on passe à développer brièvement.

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1.4. Cadre linguistique. En linguistique une distinction s’impose entre langues apparentées soumises à intercompréhension: l’intercompréhension entre langues scandinaves, entre langues germaniques et entre langues romanes. C’est justement sur ce dernier groupe de langues que nous focaliserons notre étude. Comme l’indique Álvarez: Toute véritable analyse historique profonde des langues romanes (l’italien le portugais, le français, le roumain, le sarde, l’espagnol, le catalan, le galicien) nécessite la connaissance du latin. Les similitudes et les différences entre ces langues sont plus claires si nous avons recours à une origine commune. (2011: 23). La didactique de l’intercompréhension entre langues romanes permet la renaissance du latin pour répondre aux nouveaux besoins et aux objectifs individuels, sociaux, économiques et politiques de l’Union européenne. Malgré l’importance de certaines langues romanes comme l’espagnol ou le français -langue officielle en 22 pays et langue co-officielle dans des pays tels que la Belgique, le Canada, l’Haïti, le Madagascar et la Suisse, reconnue par de nombreuses organisations et institutions internationales comme Le Conseil de l’Europe, La Cour de Justice Internationale, Le Comité International Olympique, L’Organisation des Nations Unies, etc.-, il faut se rendre à l’évidente suprématie de l’anglais, lingua franca utilisée par la plupart des sujets parlants en tant qu’instrument de communication lorsqu’ils se trouvent ailleurs, même dans des pays où l’anglais n’a pas le rang de langue officielle. Cette suprématie de l’anglais constitue une menace pour les langues minoritaires. Néanmoins l’Europe, fidèle à ses principes, continue à promouvoir la protection des langues romanes, et l’intercompréhension contribuera à atteindre cet objectif.

2. L’intercompréhension entre langues apparentées. L’intercompréhension entre langues apparentées est une pratique assez ancienne. On y trouve des témoignages tout au long de l’histoire des peuples. Comme le disait le philosophe J.A. Comenius (1631) «Toutes les langues ne doivent pas être apprises complètement jusqu’à la perfection, mais seulement jusqu’à la limite de la nécessité» (cit. par Conti, 2008: 253). Capucho évoquant les échanges commerciaux et privés effectués entre pays méditerranéens depuis des

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siècles parlait de l´intercompréhension dans ces termes: L’intercompréhension n’est pas une invention artificielle dans le champ de la didactique des langues, mais tout simplement la reconnaissance de processus naturels et spontanés mis en oeuvre par des individus ‘non-savants’ lors de contacts plurilingues (2008: 239). C’est en 1913 que le linguiste J. Ronjat utilise pour la première fois dans son Essai de Syntaxe des Parlers Provençaux Modernes le terme «intercompréhension» en tant qu’alternative à la mort des langues ou à leur opposition frontale. Les conflits belliqueux en Europe provoquèrent l’abandon de l’intercompréhension, notion plus tard ravivée avec la renaissance d’une Europe unie, plus riche et habitée par des citoyens appartenant à 28 nations distinctes et parlant 24 langues officielles. Le renouvellement de la notion d’intercompréhension constitue un nouvel abord dans le domaine de la didactique des langues dès le début des années 1990. Une brève évocation historique montre que le terme et la notion d’intercompréhension commencent à apparaître dans les «grands» dictionnaires tels que Le Robert à partir de 1974. Le Grand Larousse de la langue française dans son édition de 1975 définit ce terme en tant que «Capacité pour des sujets parlants de comprendre les énoncés émis pas d›autres sujets parlants appartenant à une même communauté» (Dumont, 2008: 105). Dans les « petits » dictionnaires comme Le Petit Larousse, ce mot apparaît vers 1988. Dans les années suivantes, et à mesure que des projets sur l’intercompréhension commencent à apparaître, le concept est de plus en plus développé. En 2003 le Dictionnaire de didactique du français donne une définition plus approfondie de ce terme: Intercompréhension. Ce concept a été mis en avant au cours de l’évolution récente de l’enseignement des langues étrangères aux adultes. Il s’agit de développer, par une méthodologie appropriée, la compréhension réciproque de sujets locuteurs de langues génétiquement apparentée (ou langues voisines) comme les langues romanes, à partir de l’usage par chacun de sa propre langue. Les idées de force de cette méthodologie peuvent se résumer ainsi: • Sélectionner et hiérarchiser les objectifs d’apprentissage. • Inciter les sujets à s’appuyer sur l’ensemble de leurs compétences culturelles autant que linguistiques, que celles-ci aient été acquises ou non en milieu scolaire. • Construire les rudiments d’une grammaire de la compréhension en dégageant les points de convergence translinguistiques (règles de passage) et en soulignant les pièges à éviter.

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• Entraîner, ainsi, progressivement l’apprenant à dynamiser son potentiel cognitif. (Cuq, 2003: 136). Les avantages de l’intercompréhension sont nombreux; on peut citer parmi tant d’autres: • Efficience dans la communication. En m’exprimant dans ma langue –dit Bancquart-, je gagne avant tout de la finesse dans l’expression; je n’ai en effet pas besoin de passer par une langue étrangère qui m’obligerait à reformuler ma pensée de manière simplifiée. Mon interlocuteur a les mêmes avantages (2013: 16). Dans certaines situations, tout particulièrement complexes, les interlocuteurs doivent faire un effort supplémentaire ayant pour but la clarté des énoncés sans avoir recours à la traduction (emploi de périphrases, de gloses explicatives, de définitions…). • L’intercompréhension favorise l’apprentissage des langues et renforce les connaissances sur la langue maternelle. Selon l’APIC (Association pour la Promotion de l’Intercompréhension) en quelques semaines (entre 40 et 60 heures) les apprenants peuvent acquérir le bagage linguistique et culturel suffisant pour pratiquer l’intercompréhension entre langues proches, au moins à l’écrit. • Renforce la motivation de l’apprenant. En prenant appui sur les connaissances déjà acquises dans les langues que l’apprenant connaît le mieux, il élargit ses connaissances linguistiques d’application aux langues de la même famille. • Permet l’enrichissement des relations interculturelles. L’intercompréhension jouit d’une valeur morale et éthique qui prône en faveur de l’égalité. Les citoyens multiplient leurs échanges communicatifs plurilingues fondés sur le respect des autres. • Ouvre l’accès à de nouveaux défis professionnels en corrélation avec le livre échange de travailleurs. • Fait alterner l’enseignement virtuel avec l’enseignement en cours. • Les étudiants eux-mêmes marquent leurs niveaux d’enseignement. • L’apprentissage oral et écrit prend une autre dimension. • Les cours s’adaptent aux supports informatiques indispensables dans cette société des nouvelles technologies.

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Différents projets de recherche sont menés aujourd’hui au sein des universités européennes et latinoaméricaines sur l’intercompréhension. Même si la plupart de ces projets ont pour base l’étude des langues romanes (Galatéa, EuRom5, EuroComRom, etc.), il ne faut pas négliger des projets en cours portant sur les langues germaniques (Iglo ou Sigürd) ou slaves (Slavic-Network). Le public ciblé par ces projets se compose pour la plupart des jeunes adultes ou adultes, mais des projets pour enfants ont aussi été créés comme Euromania ou Chainstories, qui incorporent une grande quantité de supports de nature diverse, tout particulièrement audiovisuels. Enfin, la durée de ces projets dépend de facteurs différents concernant les institutions impliquées, les apprenants participants à ces pratiques et les enseignants-guide. En règle générale, les périodes établies pour leur développement varient de moins de 50 heures (Interlat) à 3 mois (Galanet) ou à une année scolaire (Chainstories). Néanmoins ceux qui ont eu une plus ample diffusion sont: - Galatéa lancé (1996-1999) par l’Université Stendhal Grenoble 3 sous la direction de L. Dabène et C. Degache avec la collaboration de plusieurs centres universitaires français, espagnols, italiens, portugais, suisses et roumains. - EuRom5 (Europe Romane 5 langues), créé par des linguistes des universités de Salamanque, Aix-enProvence, Rome et Lisbonne. Ce projet qui fait suite à EuRom4 est une méthode d’apprentissage de la compétence de lecture en langues romanes sur des textes de presse généraliste qui propose l’apprentissage simultané de différentes langues lors d’une même séance. Les langues de travail sont le portugais, l’espagnol, le catalan, l’italien et le français et le type de formation est présentielle ou en auto-apprentissage. Ce projet a comme objectif l´acquisition de la compréhension écrite au niveau B2 et orale au niveau A1, en plus d’une réception de l’écrit des textes journalistiques. - EuroComRom est un projet créé à l’université de Francfort / Main en Allemagne (1990) sous la direction de Horst G. Klein et Tibert D. Stegmann qui vise à enseigner la compétence de compréhension écrite simultanément en plusieurs langues romanes, à un public germanophone à partir d’une langue seconde servant de pont. Ce projet qui suit rigoureusement les principes établis dans le CECR est en cours pour les langues germaniques (EuroCom Germ) ainsi que pour les langues slaves (EuroComSlav). Les langues de travail sont le portugais, l’espagnol, l’italien, le français et le roumain et le type de formation est en présentiel ou en auto-apprentissage suivant des manuels ou d’après le site. L’objectif prioritaire de ce projet est d’arriver à un niveau B2 pour l’écrit et à une bonne réception de l’écrit par la lecture des textes

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de différente nature. De son côté, Interlat est une méthode créée en 2007, au Chili, par des équipes universitaires, fondée sur la méthodologie Eurom4 de lecture de presse de textes d’actualité en plusieurs langues. Elle s’adresse à des apprenants hispanophones ou lusophones. Les langues de travail sont le portugais, l’espagnol et le français, et le type de formation est en présentiel guidée par un enseignant-guide ou en auto-apprentissage. Les objectifs à atteindre sont un niveau A2 / B1 à l’écrit et à l’oral, et une réception de textes journalistiques. Galanet. Cette plateforme réalisée dans le cadre d’un projet européen Socrates Lingua (2001-2004) coordonnée par C. Degache (Université Stendhal Grenoble 3), permet aux locuteurs la pratique de l’intercompréhension. Des équipes d’apprenants situés dans différents pays de langue romane s’y retrouvent pour participer à une même session et mener à bien un projet en commun: l’édition d’un dossier de presse (textes, documents audio, vidéos…) sur un sujet collectivement choisi. Chaque participant s’exprime dans sa propre langue. La communication entre participants se fait à travers des forums et des chats. Les langues de travail sont le portugais, l’espagnol, le catalan, l’italien et le français, et le type de formation est en ligne. Le participant est semi-guidé par un animateur de session. Les objectifs à atteindre sont un niveau B1 au niveau écrit; sur l’oral la réception n’est pas précisée. L’intercommunication entre les apprenants a d’autres objectifs importants. La méthodologie employée sur la plate-forme se fonde sur des conversations dans le forum où les élèves échangent leurs messages communicatifs. Ils développent des stratégies de lecture / compréhension sur les messages postés ou en intercommunication. Ce projet compte sur des partenaires liés par convention tels que l’Université de Aveiro (Portugal), l’Université Autonome de Barcelona (Espagne), l’Université di Cassino (Italie), l’Université Complutense de Madrid (Espagne), l’Université Lumière Lyon 2 (France), Université Alenxandru Ioan Cuza-Iasi (Roumanie) et L’Université de Pisa (Italie)… Depuis début 2008, le partenariat est engagé dans un nouveau projet dénommé Galapro, coordonné par l’université de Aveiro (http://www.galapro.eu).

3. Concevoir un parcours pédagogique en intercompréhension. - Point de départ: similitudes entre langues romanes. Une fois établis les principes qui définissent l’approche d’intercompréhension, il faut montrer aux élèves

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les similitudes existantes entre les différentes langues romanes en s’appuyant sur une sélection de termes les plus fréquemment employés dans l’usage linguistique standard. Exemple: Latin – italien – espagnol – portugais – catalan – français - roumain Cantare, cantare, cantar, cantar, cantar, chanter, cânta Linguam, lingua, lengua, lingua, llengua, langue, limbâ Pontem, ponte, puente, ponte, pont, pont, pod D’après le site de l’APIC le 70% du lexique des langues romanes présente la même origine. Cela signifie que même si le lexique n’est pas transparent, il est possible d’avoir accès au sens d’un certain terme soit en s’appuyant sur la racine du mot soit en décomposant le mot en morphèmes. L’observation d’exemples précis tirés de différentes langues montre, comme on a pu le constater, des ressemblances assez révélatrices. - Déterminer les objectifs langagiers et communicatifs. Cela consiste à développer des stratégies d’intercompréhension qu’ils pourront utiliser de manière autonome dans leurs cours de langue et réutiliser dans leur avenir personnel ou professionnel. - Spécifier la méthodologie du cours. Les cours d’intercompréhension doivent toujours être conduits par un enseignant-guide. Celui-ci sera un professeur de langues maîtrisant au moins deux langues romanes. Son rôle prioritaire: promouvoir une méthodologie communicative interactive. - Délimiter le profil de l’enseignant-guide et celui des apprenants. - Identifier les stratégies à suivre: 1. Métacognitives (planification d’objectifs, focalisation du message, autocorrection, autoévaluation). 2. Cognitives (expérimentation, contextualisation, déduction, traduction et comparaison). 3. Socio-affectives (travail en groupe, emploi de paraphrases…). - Création et mise en pratique de différentes sortes d’activités (en présence et en ligne). Sur cette plate-forme l’exploitation didactique suit les étapes suivantes: 1. Briser la glace / Choix d’un thème. 2. Remue-méninges. 3. Recherche de documents et débat. 4.Élaboration du dossier de presse. - Évaluation des acquis.

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4. Conclusion L’étude réalisée met en évidence comment la reconnaissance des langues est à la fois un support cognitif, un vecteur culturel et l’espace vital des sociétés pour lesquelles la diversité et le pluralisme sont synonymes de richesse et d’avenir. Dépassant les échanges communicatifs purement académiques l’intercompréhension nous offre, au sein d’une société globale, de nouvelles perspectives dès une optique personnelle et professionnelle.

Bibliographie Álvarez, D., Chardenet, P., Tost Planet, M. (2011). L’intercompréhension et les nouveaux défis pour les langues romanes. Paris: Union Latine. Association pour la Promotion de l’Intercompréhension (APIC): http://apic.onlc.fr/3-lintercomprehension.html [25/06/2013]. Bancquart, M.-C., S. Baron Supervielle et al. (2013). Défense et illustration de la langue française aujourd’hui. Paris: Gallimard, coll. «Hors série». Caddéo, S. et M. C. Janet (2013). L’intercompréhension: une autre approche pour l’eneseignement des langues. Paris: Hachette, coll. «Fac». Capucho, F. (2008). «L’intercompréhension est- elle une mode? Du linguiste citoyen au citoyen plurilingue» dans Pratiques 139 / 140, décembre: 238-250. Commission Européenne. (2003). Promouvoir l’apprentissage des langues et la diversité linguistique: un plan d’action 2004-2006. Bruxelles. Conseil d’Europe (2001). Un Cadre Européen Commun de Référence pour les langues: Apprendre, Enseigner, Évaluer. Strasbourg. http://www.coe.int/ [05/06/2013]. Cuq, J.P. (2003). Dictionnaire de didactique du français langue étrangère et seconde. Paris: Clé International. Denis, M. (2000). «Former les élèves à l’interculturel». Dialogues et culture 44: 62-73. Doyé, P. (2005). L’Intercompréhension. Étude de référence. Strasbourg: Conseil d’Europe. Dumont, R. (2008). De la langue à la culture. Un itinéraire didactique obligé. Paris: L’Harmattan.

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Eco, U. (1994, 1997). La recherche de la langue parfaite dans la culture européenne, traduction de J.-P. Manganaro. Paris: Éditions du Seuil. EuRom4. http://www.up.univ-mrs.fr/delic/Eurom4/ [15/06/2013]. Galanethttp://www.galanet.eu/ [08/07/2013]. Galatea. http://www.u-grenoble3.fr/galatea [09/06/2013]. Galisson, R. (1991). De la langue à la culture par les mots. Paris: Clé International, coll. « Didactique des langues étrangères ». Goethe, J. W. (1999, 2001). Maximes et réflexions. Paris: Rivages Poche, 343. Judet de la Combe, P. et H. Wismann (2004). L’Avenir des langues: Repenser les humanités. Paris: Les Éditions du Cerf. Puren, C. (2009). «Variations sur le thème de l’agir social en didactique des langues-cultures étrangères» dans É. Rosen. (dir.). La perspective actionnelle et l’approche par les tâches en classe de langues. Le Français dans Le Monde, janvier: www.aplv-languesmodernes.org/spip.php?article1888 [14/06/2013]. Ronjat, J. (1913). Essai de syntaxe de parlers provençaux modernes. Mäcon: Protat frères: http:// ieoparis.free.fr/delo/Jules%20RONJAT%20-%20Essai%20de%20syntaxe%20des%20parlers%20 proven%E7aux%20modernes.pdf [25/07/2013]. Conti, V. et F., Grin (dir.). (2008). S’entendre entre langues voisines: vers l’intercompréhension. ChêneBourg: Georg Editeur: 251-276. Vigotsky, L. (1934, 1992). Pensamiento y lenguaje. Buenos Aires: Fausto.

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ESP or GE courses? English as academic language vs. content Dr. Hadrian Lankiewicz University of Gdańsk Department of Scandinavian Studies and Applied Linguistics

Abstract The paper aims to present educational requirements for teaching English at the level of higher education in Poland as derived from the National Qualification Framework (KRK) calling for specialized language courses. Supporting this consideration with ESP literature accentuating the fact that a true ESP course reflects the methodology of the discipline, the author speculates that the lack of this component and peripheral attention to the content makes the courses in question resemble General English rather than the ESP ones. His hypothesis is verified with a study that surveyed ESP teachers representing various institutions from different parts of the country.

Keywords: ESP, GE, language teacher education, academic language, CLIL

Introduction In the era of globalization, enhanced communication, and mobility, professionals need capacities to express their expertise in the contemporary lingua franca – English. Hence language education at the university level requires reorientation towards specificity as exemplified by English for Specific Purposes (ESP). In this article, I postulate that despite the recommendation of the Council of Europe defined in the European Qualification Framework (EQF) and interpreted into the National Qualification Framework for Poland (KRK), quite a number of academic subject-specific English courses exhibit features of a typical General English (GE) class with elements of lexis oriented towards the subject-matter. The analysis of the questionnaires carried out among ESP teachers entitles me to claim that the basic reason for this state of affairs derives primarily from the lack of subject-matter expertise among teachers and their low awareness of the need to incorporate discipline methodology into an ESP course to qualify it an academic one.

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Understanding ESP as academic language The field of ESP taxonomies remains disputable, nonetheless most classifications of ESP allow for academic language differentiating it from English for occupational purposes. Yet, this division seems doubtful at the level of university education since it is difficult to decide whether, say, a medical student should be exposed to the former or the latter. Confining education to very practical aspects contradicts by definition the academic character of this level of education. Underscoring professional purposes at the expense of academic development invokes an argument raised by critical pedagogy of foreseeing social roles for students (Szkudlarek and Śliwerski, 1991) before they are ready to make their own decisions. Basically, the concept of academic language may be comprehended in two ways. In the most general sense as the language of an educational institution (PACT), or, in a very narrow one, as the language used by professionals of a particular academic discipline. Consequently, the purpose of any English course, capitalizing on the first definition, is furnishing students with language abilities to function in a specific school milieu in a language which is different from the one used in everyday communication, while in its much narrower version it pertains to familiarizing the student with discourse of an expert or a scholar representing a particular discipline. In the field of TESOL, it can be translated into offering pre-, in-, or post-study English courses (Robinson, 1991: 4). A subject-specific English course, typical of university education, is defined here after Robinson (ibid.) as a branch of ESP.

Foreign language education in the light of the European Qualification Framework Academic courses of English in question, pertain largely to in-study language education. According to EQF and KRK (its Polish counterpart), foreign language education of a graduate level is to prepare the student to be able to use a foreign language to communicate with experts of the field of the major both in the written and oral form characteristic for a particular field with recourse to discipline-specific theories and methodologies. Additionally, it has been established that graduates should possess foreign language skills at B2 level of CEFR. The above-mentioned recommendations necessitated reshaping GE courses into ESP ones construed here as representing language of a particular discipline. The problem however remains to what extend they resemble ESP courses.

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ESP or GE? A common sense dictates that the basic difference between an ESP and GE course is that the former includes the terminology of a particular discipline. Early taxonomies of ESP seem to corroborate this claim. Nonetheless, there is a repertoire of all other linguistic and nonlinguistic features shaping ESP, such as e.g. a tone, text type, register, genre and a task or situation. A very important issue is the discussion on whether ESP requires an unusual kind of methodology or a distinct type of teaching materials. Hutchinson and Waters (1992: 19) guarantee that this is not what makes ESP different from a GE course seeing the discrepancies in attitudes to language learning triggered by different needs and motivations. They assert it by arguing that “[t]he foundation of all ESP is a simple question: Why does this learner need to learn a foreign language? (…) ESP, then, is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner’s reason for learning” (Hutchinson &Waters, 1992: 19). Yet this opinion is questioned by Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998: 3-4), who claim that “all ESP teaching should reflect the methodology of the disciplines and professions it serves; and in more specific ESP teaching the nature of the interaction between the teacher and the learner may be very different from that in a general English class.” In contrast to GE, as maintained by Robinson (1980: 2-3), ESP students do not learn English because they are interested in the language itself, but they need to have a good command of English in order to work or study. Assuming discipline methodology as a significant component of an ESP course, I argue elsewhere that content-based leaning is a necessity for a good ESP course to help learners produce an authentic voice (Lankiewicz, forthcoming). Here, personal observation, reflection and the survey study entitle me to claim that a bulk number of academic courses are more GE courses masqueraded as ESP ones since they concentrate mostly on the language itself. This seems to be a general tendency as construed from a cursory analysis of ESP courses offered by Berlington School, in which “the lessons consist of a combination of fifteen (15) General English courses per week and five (5) one-to-one lessons in the specific topic of your choice” (Berlington). The argument behind the organization of a syllabus is that “[t]his format will allow you to improve your General English language skills i.e. speaking, listening, reading and writing, while working with an experienced teacher who will focus on your selected area” (ibid.). Such an attitude seems to rest on the presumption that any ESP requires solid knowledge of GE before going specific. This opinion is echoed by many ESP teachers. The existence of an array of ESP textbooks for false beginners makes this claim void.

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Despite the fact that ESP belongs to the domain of language teaching rather than professional subjectmatter development justifying language focus-on-the-form, the disregard for the content and methodology particular to a discipline renders such an ESP course a mere language class. Being mostly autodidact in the subject-matter, teachers naturally prefer to concentrate on linguistic aspects.

Research This survey research was carried out among teachers instructing courses of English as a foreign language allowing for the specificity of the field of the students’ major. They are defined here as academic English courses characteristic for ESP. The questionnaire was distributed through the email network with the snowball sampling technique (Dörnyei, 2003: 72). This way, I gained 27 respondents from different parts of Poland but the majority of responses came from the north-west part of Poland. Thus, the analysis is not representative, nonetheless the findings may represent validity in the ecological sense (van Lier, 2004: 169; Kramsch, 2002: 4) and be construed with reference to rather analogical thinking than generalization (Johnson, 2001). The convenience sampling procedure (Dörnyei 2003: 72) was used for defining the working hypothesis, which consisted in an informal interview with 16 teachers, who happened to instruct ESP academic courses in a sense defined in this article, representing various universities.

Hypothesis My basic claim is that academic ESP courses are lacking a true subject-matter component and represent GE courses with a focus on discipline-related terminology rather than methodology. This derives from the general misconception regarding the character of such a course. The questionnaire (see appendix) was constructed with the objective to verify the claim and account for related issues. Due to the space restriction imposed on the article, my analysis possesses an illustrative character and is not conclusive.

Analysis and discussion The questionnaire elicits responses through open-ended and closed-ended questions. The latter ones are of a numerical rating scale type (Dörnyei, 2002: 42). Thus, the questionnaire possesses features of both qualitative and quantitative research. Teachers’ responses are sometimes analyzed individually since there

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is an intention behind them inspired by professional literature. At other times, I consider them in clusters (ibid., 26) to offer additional insights into the holistic picture. Questions from 1 and 2 are asked for identification reasons to account for the geographical coverage and the language proficiency level of the students, respectively. The respondents reside mostly in northern and western Poland with the exception of two teachers from the central part of the country and three from the south-east. They represent various institutions of higher education both public and private, big and recognized universities as well as small provincial schools of higher education. Although geographically widespread, the research is underrepresented in numerical terms hence I decided to resign from any correlation studies. One of the assumptions beyond the educational reform postulating language instruction tuned into the field of the major is the expectation that basic knowledge of GE should be acquired at lower stages of education laying solid foundations for a more professional slant at the tertiary level (Harbig, 2007). The data obtained from the questionnaire indicates that the reformers’ expectations were too optimistic and so was the proficiency level defined as B2 (KRK) since the bulk majority of students were classified as representing maximum A2 proficiency level with some exception of B1+ at top universities in the national ranking list. Questions 3 to 6 aimed at eliciting teacher awareness regarding the basic features of an ESP course. Respondents basically perceive an ESP course as the one “including professional terminology”, “communication skills allowing expression of expertise both orally and in the written form”. The juxtaposition of these features with responses to questions 14 to 17 manifest largely a balanced approach to teaching speaking, reading and listening with a markedly marginal attention to writing with only three exceptions in this regard in which teaching writing is declared as important any other skill. Thus “oracy” (Fairclough 1996: 33) dominates in the courses constituting a clash with national requirements (KRK). The respondents do admit to use ESP textbooks (Q 4). If available, this becomes an obligatory teaching resource recommended by program coordinators or supervisors. The question remains how representative the material included in them is (cf. Nesi 2013). Authentic materials are admitted to be used as a remedy to the lack of manuals (Q4, Q 6). Some of the respondents express doubts about authentic materials and the so-called specialist texts. It boils down to the problem whether, for example, Wikipedia printouts or simplified, educational texts count as professional sources. A partial answer to the problem may be authenticity as perceived by autonomy in language teaching (Gilmore, 2007) maintaining that it is the

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student who authenticates materials. Yet, there is a danger of disempowering the learner by not equipping him/her with discourse skills characteristic for a particular discipline (Janks and Ivanic 1992: 311-313). The ESP courses offered by academic institutions represented in the study are no way mediated with students (Q 5). The respondents admit the burden of accountability enforced by KRK with needs analysis apparently having been done by policy makers (national and school level), or textbook authors with an expectation that the teacher will solely implement the ready-made solutions. A dimension of a genuine ESP course is thus lost in the bureaucratic educational machine failing to account for the uniqueness of each classroom. On the other hand, respondents express uneasiness about teaching ESP courses due to the lack of proper expertise. A bulk majority of them acknowledge being autodidacts with a few completing ESP methodology or discipline related courses (Q 7). They complain about the multitude of different ESP courses they have to teach, which results in their limited interest in the subject matter (Q 8). Consequently, most teachers concentrate on teaching GE features (9, 10) rather than the ESP-oriented ones (11, 12, 13). Those, who claim to possess some discipline related expertise and teach at more proficient levels exhibit a tendency of testing students on the content (Q 19). They also believe that their teaching resembles the CLIL model, in which attention is given both to the form and the subject matter. Some admit that “many a time students praised the language class for clarifying concepts misunderstood, or overlooked during lectures” (Q 18). Nonetheless, these teachers represent an unquestionable minority.

Conclusions All in all, data obtained from the questionnaire in this study seems to corroborate the general hypothesis assumed in the paper. Nonetheless, my research results possess an analogical rather than a conclusive character (cf. Larsen-Freeman 1997). Notwithstanding, they exemplify some tendencies and the research findings subscribe to a belief articulated by me elsewhere (Lankiewicz, forthcoming) that a good ESP course requires a proper attention to the subject-matter and related methodology as it is offered in CLIL. This opinion is also shared by research respondents (Q 20). Keeping the right balance between the form and content prevents turning the language class into the pure subject-matter immersion. The solution to the problem lies both in educational policies and the teachers’ awareness of what it is to teach a GE and an ESP course.

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References Berlington, URL: http://www.burlingtonschool.co.uk/courses/specialist-topics [26/10/13]. Dornyei, Z. (2003). Questionnaires in second language research: construction administration and processing. Mahwah, NJ and London: Erlbaum. Dudley-Evans, T. & M.T. St John (1998). Developments in ESP: a multi-disciplinary approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press EQF, URL: http://ec.europa.eu/education/pub/pdf/general/eqf/broch_en.pdf [26/10/13]. Fairclough, N. (ed.) (1996). Critical language awareness. London and New York: Longman. Gilmore, A. (2007). “Authentic materials and authenticity in foreign language learning”, Language Teaching 40: 97-118. Harbig, A. M. (2007). “Nauczanie języków obcych w aspekcie przemian w polskim szkolnictwie wyższym”. URL: http://spnjo.polsl.pl/konferencja/materialy/referaty/harbig.pdf [26/10/13]. Hutchinson, T. & A. Waters (1992). English for specific purposes: a learning-centred approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Janks, H. & R. Ivanic (1992). “Critical language awareness and emancipatory discourse” in N. Fairclough (ed.) Critical language awareness. London and New York: Longman, 305-331. Johnson, S. (2001). Emergence: The connected lives of ants, brains, cities and software. New York: Fordham University Press. Kramsch, C. (ed.) (2002). Language acquisition and Language socialization: Educational perspectives. London: Continuum. KRK, Rozporządzenie Ministra Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego z dnia 2 listopada 2011 r. w sprawie Krajowych Ram Kwalifikacji dla szkolnictwa wyższego. URL: http://www.nauka.gov.pl/g2/orygin al/2013_05/478e9241dffed3a0bcd4fb28792392a8.pdf [26/10/13]. Lankiewicz, H. “EAP and academic discourse: Mediating elaborated code in content learning”. Neofilolog 41, forthcoming. Larsen-Freeman, D. (1997). Chaos/Complexity science and second language acquisition. Applied Linguistics 18: 141-165.

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Nesi, H. (2013). “Uncovering occluded genres: A role for corpora in LSP”. Plenary lecture at the 12th Conference of the European Association of languages for specific purposes. A Coruna, Spain 5th – 7th September. Book of Abstracts. PACT, URL: http://www.csun.edu/science/ref/language/pact-academic-language.html [26/10/13]. Robinson, P. C. (1991). ESP today: A practitioner’s guide. Hemel, Hempstead: Prentice Hall International. Szkudlarek, T & B. Śliwierski (1991). Wyzwania pedagogiki krytycznej i antypedagogiki. Kraków: Impuls. Van Lier, L. (2004). The ecology and semiotics of language learning. A sociocultural perspective. Boston, Dordrecht, New York, London: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Appendix This anonymous questionnaire does not evaluate your teaching, it rather possesses an attitudinal character. Please be honest since your answers are vital for the verification of a research hypothesis. Please answer the questions only if the English class you teach has the features of an ESP course (A course of English as a foreign language allowing for the specificity of the field of students’ major). • Where do you teach in? Mention the province (Wielkopolskie, Pomorskie etc.) and the name of the school. • How would you define the proficiency level of your students (A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2). Circle the most typical profile for the courses you deliver, e.g. if the majority of students are false beginners mark A1 or A1+ • What features of the course make you define it as an ESP? • Do you use a subject specific ESP textbook? If your answer is negative then where do you get the materials from? • Do you do any needs analysis at the beginning of the course? If yes, specify how. • Do you use authentic materials? • Have you completed any courses related to the ESP course you are teaching?

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XII Congreso AELFE (2013) • Are you personally interested in the subject-matter of the course you are teaching?

How important during your English classes are the following components. Circle the figure representing your intention. 0 stands for no interest, 5 indicates focal attention. • Grammar 0 1 2 3 4 5 • Lexis 0 1 2 3 4 5 • Rhetorical conventions characteristic to the discipline

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• Text types typical for your discipline

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• The content (subject-matter)

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• Reading skills 0 1 2 3 4 5 • Speaking skills

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• Listening skills

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• Writing skills 0 1 2 3 4 5 • In what way the content covered during classes enriches students’ subject-matter knowledge? • Do you test you students on the content? If yes, how? • What do you think the success of a good ESP course depends on? Thank you very much for your time devoted to the questionnaire. Should you be interested in the research findings, the published version of the article will be directed to the address on your notice.

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Interlanguage pragmatics of the speech act of request: A case study of EFL learners in the academic context Anna Szczepaniak-Kozak, PhD Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland

Abstract In this paper the acquisition of pragmatic competence in English among advanced Polish learners of English is investigated. For this purpose a longitudinal study has been conducted involving a collection of linguistic written data by means of a discourse completion task (DCT) with an open response format. The responses provided, in this particular case requests, were studied mostly in terms of internal and external mitigating devices together with strategies for expressing directness of the requests. On this basis, conclusions about the interlanguage pragmatic competence of the participants are drawn. Selected aspects of L2 pragmatics which may require further instruction are also discussed.

Key Words: interlanguage pragmatics, requests, academic discourse, Polish learners of English

Introduction This study intends to expand the range of studies on the acquisition of pragmatic competence in English as a foreign language with special attention paid to academic discourse. Its aim is to examine the development of one component of learner interlanguage pragmatics, i.e. requests, and look for acquisitional regularities and transfer-related factors that influence this process. Although there exists a plethora of studies concerning cross-cultural or intercultural pragmatics involving English as one of the languages compared, there is still dearth of studies involving EFL Polish learners. For example, to this point request realization constituted the subject of investigation in studies offered by Ogiermann (2009a, b), Wierzbicka (1985, 2005, 2010), Jaworski (1994) and Jodłowiec and Urban (2010). However, their studies are mostly cross-sectional in character and not longitudinal. Consequently, this study is an attempt to investigate interlanguage pragmatics (henceforth ILP) of Polish EFL advanced learners in its narrow sense, i.e. “development and use of strategies

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for linguistic action by nonnative speakers” (Kasper and Schmidt, 1996: 150). Acquisition of requests at the tertiary education level There have been a few studies investigating ILP at the tertiary level of education. For example, Ghavamnia et al. (2011) conducted a study in which 30 Persian learners of English were asked to fill in a DCT consisting of 12 request situations. Their responses were juxtaposed with requests produced by 30 Canadian native speakers of English and those provided by 30 Persian native speakers in a DCT rendered into Persian. This study is of a particular interest for my investigation of ILP development, because both Persian and Polish feature a relatively high degree of request directness in comparison to English. The results of their investigation indicated that native speakers of English are indirect in request production and use more downgrading devices than non-native speakers. The results of the study also indicated that Persian EFL speakers avoided using some request strategies, i.e. introducing themselves, thanking/showing appreciation, and using interlocutor’s name. These strategies were absent from samples provided by L1 Persian speakers who filled in the task in their native language. On this basis Ghavamnia et al. (2011: 116) drew a conclusion that the marked absence of these three requesting strategies is a result of L1 transfer. A few research projects also involved different English for Specific Purposes (ESP) learners at the tertiary level of education. For example, Martínez-Flor and Alcón (2004) investigated in the Spanish context EFL learners’ awareness and production of requests, suggestions and advice in six university disciplines. The results of their comparison indicated that English Philology and Primary Education students, who receive humanistic training, performed better than learners from other disciplines (i.e. Law, Business Administration and Management, Computer Science Engineering and Agricultural Technical Engineering). Martínez-Flor and Alcón (2004) argue that this might be the outcome of the nature of their EFL classes. English taught in the humanities has a more encompassing character and includes a greater variety of situations and, thereby, a wider repertoire of linguistic means, including pragmatic features. The syllabi for teaching English to students of other disciplines typically gives preference to technical vocabulary and work-oriented functional structures. Additionally, spoken interaction is more service or product oriented, where clarity and successful completion of a communication exchange is stressed, and not maintaining solidarity, common ground or lessening the imposition. Consequently, students of technical and business studies receive less varied input, and their language awareness is lower, which directly influences their ILP.

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Another account of ESP learners’ speech acts of request performance is offered by another study conducted by Martínez-Flor and Usó-Juan (2006). Its authors compared requesting behavior of two groups of students, English Philology (EP) and Computer Science Engineering (CSE). In particular they focused in their analysis on the learners’ use of external and internal mitigation devices in two role plays differing in terms of social status. EP students performed better than CSE students, e.g. they modified more requests. This study also supports a tenet that higher grammatical competence increases learners’ chances for correct use of pragmatic features (Martínez-Flor and Usó-Juan, 2006: 31). The present investigation differs from the studies known to me because it involves a longitudinal research consisting of multiple intervention and test stages in a sample of advanced students of English. In this way it was hoped it would be possible to identify effects of language instruction in a long-term study in order to provide data for this under-researched aspect. By keeping the same group of participants I also wanted to achieve reliability of the collected data.

The design of the study The present study is based on the assumption that obvious differences between Polish and English cultural norms, and the characteristics of these speech communities, condition differences in requesting strategies applied by native speakers of a particular language and of its learners. This means, English native speakers employ requesting strategies depending heavily on the use of the interrogative (conventionalized indirect strategy), and avoid using the bare imperative or performatives. Polish native speakers also use interrogatives to convey requests. This has been shown to be valid in studies conducted by Kalisz (1993:112-113), Ogiermann (2009 a, b), especially where interlocutors do not know one another (Marcjanik, 2009: 6465). At the same time, Wierzbicka (1985) and Lubecka (2000) emphasize the role of the imperative in performing Polish requests in informal situations. The study participants were 57 first-year BA students of bilingual philology studies (English and German) at Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, Poland, who had not received pragmatic instruction prior to the first data collection. I realize that some studies include larger groups but then they can reveal information about production and not acquisition of pragmatic competence, even if they call themselves acquisition studies. The study participants receive weekly around 14 hours of instruction in English as a long-term preparation for the profession of translator, teacher or intercultural mediator. In order to monitor their

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assumed development of pragmatic competence, they were given the DCT in the first weeks of their studies (October, 2011) and in the second year (November, 2012). They are to be given it one more time before their graduation in June, 2014. This way the author hoped to gain insight into the complex relationship between the length of instruction, learner proficiency level, and difficulty of learning targets. It is hypothesized that the data from the second year of my participants’ studies will show a developmental trend for conventionally indirect request strategies and types of modification employed and their position in the whole sequence, and that language production will approximate towards target language norms. The data to assess ILP were collected with the use of a discourse completion task (DCT). Despite the wellknown weaknesses of the discourse completion task, it is still recognized as a reliable and effective method of data collection in pragmatic studies, e.g. Blum-Kulka et al. (1989), Rose and Kasper (2001), Ogiermann (2009a and b), and Ellis (2003). It is especially appreciated for its ‘discreteness’ which, according to O’Keeffe et al. (2011: 22), means that “the researcher has a lot of control over the language which they want to elicit. The focus can be limited to a very specific context of use […]”. My DCT is made up of 15 situations that were designed, pilot-tested and selected to elicit requests (10 scenarios) and apologies (in 5 scenarios, used as distracters). They are adapted from a DCT composed and also pilot-tested by Liu (2007), with his permission granted to the present author. The request situations were selected with the primary criterion of their frequency and usefulness for learners of the type investigated, i.e. Polish university students. After receiving the responses to the situation descriptions, they were transcribed verbatim by an independent coder and analyzed. In what follows, an analysis of the responses to one powerasymmetrical request situation in the academic context is presented. In the situation a student asks the president of the university, whom he or she knows from some previous classes, for an interview on a topic related to his or her graduate thesis. As the student decides to ask for that favor despite the president’s tight schedule, we may consider this situation an imposition. It also constitutes a request asked of a person higher in the academic hierarchy. The situation was outlined as follows (cf. Liu, 2007: 391-415): You are writing your graduate thesis and need to interview the president of your university. The president was your teacher and you know him quite well. You know the president is very busy and has a very tight schedule. You still want to ask the president to spare one or two hours for your interview. The scheme to code the collected data builds on the schemas designed by Blum-Kulka et al. (1989: 1-34, Appendix), Rue and Zhang (2008: 52-57; 313-314), and Takahashi (2001: 199). The requests are analyzed

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mostly in terms of their structure, taking into account not only their directness but also the external and internal modification used.

Data analysis It is clear from the samples collected already in 2011 that the students realized that responding to this cue required providing a reason. They evaluated it as imposing on, or demanding of, the hearer. In the majority of cases the students also judged it right that the speakers are of an unequal power status. However, most of them were unable to successfully get the message across in the clearest way, especially the nuance that the President and the student know each other from classes and the former is much higher in the academic hierarchy (Ex. 1). In other words, they were unsuccessful in selecting the most pragmalinguistically appropriate way of requesting. Ex. 1. Dear president, is it possible to find in your schedule a whole for an interview with a past student? I wouldn’t ask if it wasn’t so important to me, since it’s going to be a part of my graduate thesis.

External mitigation The number and diversity of external mitigation clearly indicates that the students understood that their request was face-threatening and that some face-work is necessary to mitigate the imposition involved. In the first-year data external mitigating devices were used in 87.75% of the responses. Altogether there were 92 mitigating supportive moves provided, which gives us on average 1.61 devices per request. Only seven head acts were externally mitigated by a single device either a grounder (5) or disarmer (2). As to the general distribution of the moves, the most frequent category was definitely the grounder (in 37 requests) sometimes used twice per response (Ex. 2), thereby 44.5% in total. The second most frequent category was the disarmer (20.5%; Ex. 3), and then the preparator (15%; Ex. 4). Some other categories were also represented: sweetener (2%; Ex. 5), cost minimizer (7.5%; Ex. 6), self-introduction (2%; Ex. 7), expression of gratitude (5.5%). Ex. 2. I’m writing my graduate thesis and I want to talk with you. It’s very important for me. Could you spare one or two hours for me? (double grounder) Ex. 3. Excuse me, Mr President, I know that you have a lot to do, but could you spare one or two hours for

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my interview? Ex. 4. Next week I’ll graduate the university and I need your short opinion. Do you have any free time for interview? Ex. 5. I know, that you are very busy, sir, but I also knew, that you are trying to help students when you can. I need a interview with you to finish my graduate thesis, so if you could find a hour or two for me I would be very thankful. Ex. 6. Good morning, I’d only take a minute. I am writing my graduate thesis and I’d like to speak with you about it. Would it be possible to meet sometime for one or two hours? Ex. 7. Hello, my name is Anna B. I was attending your lectures on German literature last year. Right now, I’m writing my graduate thesis and I would like to ask you some questions. I know you don’t have much time, but I would be infinitely grateful if you found an hour in order to help me. The development of the students’ pragmatic competence can be seen in the number and diversification of the mitigation used when we compare the first and second year data. The ratio of external mitigators per request was slightly higher, i.e. 1.73. Out of all the responses provided the grounder was again the most frequent (32.2%), but this is a marked drop when compared with the earlier stage data. Similarly to the first year, the second most popular category was: disarmers (27.11%), preparators (11.86%), expressions of gratitude (10.1%), cost minimizers (6.77%), sweeteners (8.47%), getting a precommitment (1.69%), asking the hearer’s opinion (1.69%). Head acts In terms of the request strategies, the samples provided were also varied but nonetheless the category of the query preparatory dominated (Ex. 8) both in the first and second year data. As to the first year, the query preparatory appeared in 72.34% items. The remaining strategies were (in the order of frequency): mitigated want statements (10.63%, Ex. 9), want statements (4.25%; Ex. 10), hedged performatives (4.25%; Ex. 11), mood derivables with please (4.25%), permission questions (4.25%, Ex. 12) and suggestions (2.12%, Ex. 13). Ex. 8. Could you spare one or two hours for my interview? Ex. 9. I would like to know, if you agree for an one or two hour interview.

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Ex. 10. As you know, I want to make an interview with you … Ex. 11. I wanted to ask if you could find a time for me in this week. Ex. 12. Could I make an interview with you, Sir? Ex. 13. Maybe you find some time, 1 or 2 hours, and help me? In the second-year data the query preparatory appeared in half of the requests (51.5%). Other categories were significantly less popular but their frequency was higher than in the first year, which might be indicative of the learners’ higher pragmatic competence also because the use of the query preparatory decreased. Mitigated preparatory questions and hedged performatives appeared in 14% of the requests, mitigated permission questions in 8.5%, mitigated want statements and want statements in 5.7% each, and mitigated preparatory statements in 2.8%.

Internal mitigation Internal mitigation is most often developed by EFL learners in last place, if ever. This regularity is also confirmed by my data. The frequency of internal modification in the first year was very low judging by the high imposition of the request. Samples without any internal mitigation constituted 57.44% of all head acts. The most frequent device was the phrasal downgrader or (31.57%) and subjectivising the head act (27.63%). The politeness marker please was a little less frequent (18.42%). Other lexical or phrasal pragmalinguistic features were used infrequently, e.g. the indefinite pronoun some used as a hedge, or other hedges any time, altogether 15.78%, few intensifiers really, super, very (3.94%), upgrader even one hour (1.31%) and downtoner possible (1.31%). Syntactical downgrading was almost absent. The variety of internal modification was higher in the second-year sample but the relative ratio per request remained exactly the same (1.61). However, an interesting development from the first-year samples appeared in the form of different syntactical conditional downgrading (30.90%), i.e. with would (12.72%, Ex. 14), would like (7.27%), could in mitigated permission questions (5.45%), or syntactic downgrading of other types: conditional (3.63%) and tense (1.81%, Ex. 15). Out of lexical or phrasal devices the most frequent category was again option giving (29.09%) and the subjectiviser (20%). Some was less frequent (7.27%) and appeared at the same frequency as the lexical downtoner maybe. Surprisingly, please was almost absent (1.81%) and appeared as rarely as categories which are regularly very rare in data produced

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by EFL learners, e.g. lexical downgraders; lexical understaters, consultative devices (1.81% each). There were also some cases of single upgraders (can), commitment indicators, lexical upgraders (1.81% each). Ex.14: Mr. President, would you mind spare an hour for the interview? (second year) Ex.15: Excuse me, sir I was wondering if I could interview you for my graduate thesis?

Discussion of the research results The data collected for this test item in the first and second year constitute sufficient evidence that these Polish learners of English recognize correctly that the degree of imposition, social distance, and relative power between the speaker and the hearer is not equal. They seem to take into account the three social factors considered vital for the selection of politeness strategies, i.e. the social distance between interlocutors, the ranking of imposition, and the degree of risk. All of them are rated highly in this scenario. Thereby, the situation requires more mitigation and a higher degree of indirectness. However, they differ in pragmalinguistic choices, i.e. they use specific strategies, not necessarily the ones which would be used by native speakers. When we consider the number and type of supporting moves in the requests, the development of pragmatic competence is noticeable. In the first year the students went to great lengths to mitigate the request. They provided some kind of explanation (grounder), apologized for the act of requesting, and cost minimized, so as to diminish the impact of the act. In fact, these requests resemble very much requests that could be produced in Polish in the same situation. To illustrate, Lubecka (2000: 258) comments on Polish requesting behavior in formal, unequal social status situations in the following way, “[t]he Polish speaker’s explanation is usually long and detailed, often personalized, as it aims at making the requestee an accomplice in the requester’s success or failure”. In the second year the students produced fewer grounders and increased considerably the use of cost minimizers, whose frequencies came level. My data, if constituting a limited corpus, also indicate that these proficient language learners have already acquired some pragmatic competence in English, i.e. the use of query preparatory to convey requests. The increase in mitigated preparatory questions and hedged performatives are definite achievements in their ILP as well. Furthermore, the relative absence of mood derivables should be considered a stable feature of their competence, which again is a positive phenomenon, especially judging against the possibility of

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negative transfer from Polish. The students seem to realize what Wierzbicka (2005: 34) put forward, i.e. that the mood derivable combined with please and/or dimunitive in requests is very frequent in Polish but a corresponding request strategy in English is the interrogative Would you/could you. It is also clear that the students start to realize that in relatively high imposition contexts, biclausal request forms are preferred, e.g. I was wondering if you could..?, instead of the more frequent, at least in the first-year sample, monoclausal form Could you …? As far as mitigation moves are concerned, the learners preferred external mitigation, above all the grounder, over internal devices. My results corroborate the results of other studies in this research area. Grounders have appeared in numerous studies on requests as the dominating category. Their relatively high frequency is considered indicative of “the estimated necessity of justifying the intrusion upon the hearer’s face in a given culture” (Ogiermann 2009a: 210). Providing an explanation why it is necessary to impose on the hearer makes the activity more justifiable and, by doing so, makes the hearer more eager to perform the requested activity. At the same time a heavy use of grounders made the requests verbose, especially in the first year, and the amount of information provided was on the verge of redundancy and over-explicitness. The students’ verbosity decreased in the second year together with the frequency of grounders, from 45.5% to 32.2%. A very welcome development is also an increase in the use of other mitigators, especially the cost minimizer. The analyzed sample indicates that these EFL learners rely on a small set of formulas and lexical devices to internally modify speech acts. They all used some syntactic and lexical downgraders but the employed means were not very varied. At this stage of their ILP they do not apply linguistic resources with native-like appropriateness either. It has been argued in other studies that “internal modification is particularly sensitive to level of proficiency and is part of a late developmental stage” (Trosborg, 1987 in Economidou-Kogetsidis, 2009: 100-101). The data also support Kasper’s (2001: 8) observation that “implicit, syntactically integrated, nonroutinized expressions of epistemic modality are more difficult to acquire than explicit, extraclausal (parenthetical), and routinized expressions”.

Final remarks In view of what has been presented so far, it seems justifiable to say that these EFL learners’ pragmatic competence in October 2011 showed features of incompleteness. The salient incompleteness of their

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acquired pragmatic knowledge is visible at two levels, as defined by Kopytko (2001: 793; 2002: 33): 1) “the incompleteness of the acquisition of a specific use of language; and 2) the incompleteness of the acquisition of use in relation to all possible uses of language in a specific society”. In other words, language users differ not only in terms of areas of ILP competence but also its level in the same areas. However, it is assumed, following Ellis (1992), that in the third year the learners will start to perform requests by means of a few formulaic routines, and later begin to modify these initial routines, thus increasing their range of strategy types and mitigation.

References Blum-Kulka, S., J. House & G. Kasper (eds.) (1989). Cross-cultural Pragmatics: Requests and Apologies. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex. Economidou-Kogetsidis, M. (2009). “Interlanguage request modification: The use of lexical/phrasal downgraders and mitigating supportive moves”. Multilingua 28: 79-112. Ellis, R. (1992). “Learning to communicate in the classroom”. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 14, 1: 214: 225. Ellis, R. (2003). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ghavamnia, M., M.Tavakoli & M. Rezazadeh (2011). “A comparative study of requests among L2 English, L1 Persian, and L1 English speakers”. Revista Electrónica de Lingüística Aplicada 10: 105-123. Jaworski, A. (1994). “Pragmatic failure in a second language: Greeting responses in English by Polish students”. IRAL 1: 41-55. Jodłowiec, M. & M. Urban (2010). “Kompetencja pragmatyczna a poziom zaawansowania w języku angielskim wśród Polaków uczących się języka angielskiego” in W. Chłopicki & M. Jodłowiec (eds.), Słowo w Dialogu Międzykulturowym, 311-322. Kraków: Tertium. Kalisz, R. (1993). “Different cultures, different languages, and different speech acts revisited”. Papers and Studies in Contrastive Linguistics 27: 107-118. Kasper, G. (2001). “Four perspectives on L2 pragmatic development”. Applied Linguistics 22, 4: 502-530.

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Kasper, G. & R. Schmidt (1996). “Developmental issues in interlanguage pragmatics”. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 18, 2: 149-169. Kopytko, R. (2001). “From Cartesian towards non-Cartesian pragmatics”. Journal of Pragmatics 33: 783804. Liu, J. (2007). “Development of a pragmatics test for Chinese EFL learners”. Language Testing 24, 3: 391-415. Lubecka, A. (2000). Requests, Invitations, Apologies and Compliments in American English and Polish. Kraków: Księgarnia Akademicka. Marcjanik, M. (2009). Mówimy Uprzejmie: Poradnik Językowego Savoir-vivre’u. Warszawa: PWN. Martínez-Flor, A. & E. Alcón (2004). “Pragmatic competence in the ESP context: A study across disciplines” in I. Fortanet, J., C. Palmer & S. Posteguillo (eds.), Linguistic Studies in Academic and Professional English, 167-201. Castellón: Servei de Publicacions de la Universitat Jaume I. Martínez-Flor A. & E. Usó-Juan (2006). “Learners’ use of request modifiers across two university ESP disciplines”. Ibérica 12: 23-42. Ogiermann, E. (2009a). “Politeness and in-directness across cultures: A comparison of English, German, Polish and Russian requests”. Journal of Politeness Research 5: 189-216. Ogiermann, E. (2009b). On Apologising in Negative and Positive Politeness Cultures, Amsterdam: Benjamins. O’Keeffe, A., B. Clancy & S. Adophs (2011). Introducing Pragmatics in Use. London: Routledge. Rose, K. R. & G. Kasper (eds.) (2001). Pragmatics in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rue, Y.-J. & Q. G. Zhang (2008). Request Strategies: A Comparative Study in Mandarin Chinese and Korean. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Szczepaniak-Kozak, A. (in press a). “Interlanguage pragmatics: a study into the acquisition of pragmatic competence in English as a foreign language context”, in S. Adamczak-Krysztofowicz & A. Szczepaniak-Kozak (eds.), Kultur-Kommunikation-Kreativität-Reflexivität. Frankfurt a. M.: Peter Lang.

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Szczepaniak-Kozak, A. (in press b). “The relation between linguistic proficiency and pragmatic appropriateness: a study of Polish learners of English as a foreign language”. 5th Brno Conference on linguistic studies in English postconference materials. Takahashi, S. (2001). “Input enhancement in developing pragmatic competence”, in K. R. Rose & G. Kasper (eds.), Pragmatics in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 171199. Trosborg, A. (1987). “Apology Strategies in Native/Non-natives”. Journal of Pragmatics 11: 147-167. Wierzbicka, A. (1985). “Different cultures, different languages, different speech acts: Polish vs. English”. Journal of Pragmatics 9, 2-3: 145-178. Wierzbicka, A. (2005). Cross-Cultural Pragmatics: The Semantics of Human Interaction. The Hague: Mouton de Gruyter. Wierzbicka, A. (2010). “Cultural scripts and intercultural communication” in A. Trosborg (ed.), Pragmatics Across Languages and Cultures, 43-78. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.

VII. APPLICATION OF ICT’s IN LSP / APLICACIÓN DE LAS TIC´s EN LFE

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Preparing the Way for Internationalisation: the Incorporation of Social Networks into the Sciences Curriculum for Learning English Verónica Pérez Gómez Universidade da Coruña

Abstract The use of social networks for pedagogical purposes is becoming more and more frequent, and numerous recent studies (Borau et al., 2009; Ortiz de Urbina, P. & Cáceres, I. 2010; Tomé, M. 2010) have proven them to be highly useful for teaching languages, as they help improve students’ communication skills, their memory and pronunciation, and they contribute to enhance the students’ awareness of other countries’ cultures. This paper presents a framework for designing a curriculum for scientific and technical English language learning and for cultural meaning negotiation in the Faculties of Science in Galicia by using the social networks as a main tool. This proposal is contextualized within a dual yet concrete business and academic frame. First, a study is conducted to assess the specific interest that Galician spin-off companies have in improving their English language skills so as to be able to expand their business ventures. Then, in academic terms, the paper examines the policy directions established by the three Galician universities to obtain their strategic priority of internationalisation. Next, this policy is compared to actual academic curricula used in the area of the Sciences. Finally, a conclusion is reached that the Biology and Chemistry degrees should be reinforced with scientific and technical English instruction in order to help students to adjust to an international working context, and a specific plan to do so is proposed that takes advantage of the pedagogical opportunities offered by the social networks.

Key Words: Social networks, Galician spin-off companies, internationalisation, cultural meaning negotiation.

Resumen Preparando el camino hacia la internacionalización: la incorporación de las redes sociales al currículo

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de ciencias para aprender inglés El uso de las redes sociales con fines pedagógicos es cada vez más frecuente. Numerosos estudios recientes (Borau et al., 2009; Ortiz de Urbina, P. & Cáceres, I. 2010; Tomé, M. 2010) han demostrado la gran utilidad que estas tienen en la enseñanza de idiomas, puesto que no solo ayudan a los estudiantes a mejorar sus habilidades comunicativas, su memoria y su pronunciación, sino que además, contribuyen a desarrollar la percepción de los estudiantes acerca de las culturas de otros países. Este artículo presenta un marco sobre el que diseñar un currículo para el aprendizaje del inglés científico-técnico y de la negociación cultural de significados, en las facultades de ciencias de Galicia, mediante el uso de las redes sociales. Esta propuesta se plantea desde el punto de vista de dos contextos específicos: el empresarial y el académico. En primer lugar, se lleva a cabo un estudio sobre las empresas spin-off gallegas con el objetivo de evaluar el interés que tienen en mejorar sus destrezas lingüísticas en inglés para poder aumentar su negocio. En cuanto al área académica, el artículo examina las políticas de las tres universidades para alcanzar su prioridad estratégica de internacionalización para, a continuación, comparar estas políticas con el programa académico existente en el área de las ciencias. Finalmente, se llega a la conclusión de que las titulaciones de Biología y Química deberían reforzarse con la enseñanza de inglés científico-técnico para ayudar a los estudiantes a adaptarse a un contexto laboral internacional y, para ello, se incluye en esta propuesta un plan que tiene en cuenta las ventajas pedagógicas que ofrecen las redes sociales. Palabras clave: redes sociales, empresas spin-off de Galicia, internacionalización, negociación cultural de significados.

Introduction Numerous studies have pointed out the advantages that can be accomplished as a result of the implementation of different types of social networks in language learning contexts. Ortiz de Urbina and Cáceres (2010) valued in particular the usefulness of Ning within a German language course. The study proved how this social network improved the students’ communicative skills and increased their motivation. Ruipérez et al. (2011: 162-163) demonstrated how Twitter helped the students of another German course to gain a higher level of self-awareness as they were able to identify and correct their mistakes by means of peer correction, they acquired more confidence to write in German and they developed a feeling of “team-consciousness”. Moreover, according to the study carried out by Tomé

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(2010) within a French as a Foreign Language (FLE) course, the use of social networks, such as Ning, combined with some web 2.0 tools, can also be helpful in improving pronunciation. The aim of this paper is to present a proposal for a curriculum for scientific and technical English language learning that contributes to enhancing cultural meaning negotiation in the faculties of Science in Galicia. This curriculum will integrate a social network as a main tool, so as to help the Galician universities and their spin-off companies to acquire a higher degree of internationalisation and to help students to be prepared to adjust to an international working context. Therefore, the paper takes into account two different points of view – business and academic – and it is organised as follows: it first identifies the English language priorities of Galician spin-off companies. Second, the article examines the strategic policies that the Galician universities are developing to deal with the internationalisation process, and these are compared with the actual programmes of Biology and Chemistry degrees in Galicia. Third, a curriculum for a scientific and technical English and intercultural course is proposed. Finally, the conclusions and implications of this paper for the teaching and learning of ESP field are explained.

The English language priorities for Galician spin-off companies Galician spin-off companies are taken into account so that this proposal for an ESP course has relevant information from the working context on the areas that can be addressed with the help of social networks. Thus, a series of interviews have been carried out among the Galician spin-off companies to disclose the English areas that they regard as relevant to establish international relations and to understand their commitment to improve them. A total amount of 47 university spin-off companies have been interviewed. They belong to different fields such as: computing and ICT, engineering, healthcare, humanities, sciences and environment and management consultancy. As could be expected, the study revealed that there is a large demand of medium to high level skills in English among the workers. As can be observed in Table 1, on the one hand, oral fluency is the most demanded skill, apart from familiarity with the technical jargon.

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English areas

Ranking

Oral and written communication Technical jargón Translation and interpreting Culture and customs

1st

2nd

3rd

4th

Not useful

28

12

5

0

2

24

16

4

2

1

21

10

11

1

4

4

8

14

3

18

from other countries

Table 1. The English areas are ranked by their interest for the companies

Moreover, the workers themselves are aware that they need to make improvements in their oral fluency in English. And thus, there were 22 companies in which the interviewees declared to have difficulties in different areas of English. Table 2 summarises the results:

Areas

Number of companies

Oral fluency

17

Writing

5

Technical jargón

3

Listening & comprehension

3

Table 2. The English areas that the workers need to improve

However, the cultural aspect of the linguistic experience does not receive much attention (see Table 1). Thus, besides the linguistic competences, the interviews revealed that these spin-off companies need to take into account the culture as a determining factor to increase their international relations. These spinoff companies identify, then, workplace requirements that students may need as future workers and that might therefore be useful for ESP courses. In this way, students would be more prepared to work in an

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international context. Besides, Galician universities have defined internationalisation as a strategic priority.

Galician universities: strategic policies With regard to the advantages for the internationalisation process, the strategic policies of the universities point out the increasing agreements and opportunities to establish new relations with institutions from other countries and the capacity to attract new students. Besides, they commend the development and success of the university language centres as well as the great potential of the Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) to help students in the learning process is also stressed. In contrast, limited international mobility, difficulties to integrate within the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) and insufficient fluency and training in foreign languages are viewed as major problems in the Galician universities (Plano estratéxico da UDC 2005-20101, Plan estratéxico da USC, 2011-20202, Plan estratéxico da Universidade de Vigo, 2008-20123). To observe how these strategic policies are adopted, this paper takes into account the biology and chemistry fields, since they are less explored in ESP in comparison to others such as business (Dudley Evans and St. John, 1998:53). Moreover, the degrees of biology and chemistry are part of a pioneer project4 implemented in the University of A Coruña, hereafter UDC, by means of which eleven subjects will be taught in English in each of these degrees in the 2013-2014 academic year. The universities of Santiago5 and Vigo6 offer no specific information about which subjects will be taught in English in the degrees of biology and chemistry, although these universities are also progressively adopting English as a language of instruction. With respect to teachers’ training in English, the three universities will be giving English support to the teachers who want to teach their subjects in English. Again, the universities of Santiago and Vigo give no specific information about English training courses for teachers; in the UDC, there is a mentoring programme for teachers first teaching in English (Plano de Apoio ao Ensino 2013-20147). As regards to the international relations in biology and chemistry, the students are offered the Erasmus and Leonardo da Vinci programmes to study and work in other European countries, as well as other training programmes that also include countries from Asia, USA and Canada (UDC: Programa Leonardo Da Vinci: Proxecto Hi-training8, USC: Programas de mobilidade9, UVIGO: oficina de Relacións Internacionais10). Nevertheless, the financial factor continues to be the main problem, since there is little funding to increase the number of studying abroad opportunities. This aspect of internationalisation would be key to obtain

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additional agreements between universities from Galicia and universities from other countries and, in turn, this would imply more opportunities for Galician students to study and work abroad, and more international recognition and impact for the universities. In view of this claimed need for internationalisation and taking into account the results of the interviews with the spin-off companies, it would seem reasonable to have students with a solid knowledge of foreign languages, English in particular, as the lingua franca of the business world. However, the delicate financial situation that we are living in makes this plan almost utopian, since it is intended that Spanish students have a high level of English, comparable to other European countries, but at the same time, the mobility grants are not enough and many students cannot have an experience abroad to improve their English skills and their intercultural competences (Alcón, 2011: 35).

A curriculum proposal for a scientific and technical English and intercultural course through Social Networks The proposal for a course in Scientific and Technical English for biology and chemistry suggested in this paper incorporates the social network Diipo to reinforce the technical teaching instruction. The students will use the social network to deal with scientific topics in different ways while communicating with their local and virtual classmates. This course will allow the Galician students to be in contact with English speakers from other countries, and this will offer unique learning opportunities to the students since they will have access to other learning perspectives, perhaps different from those of their local university. This means that the students, while communicating with others through a social network, will gather substantial information about the differences between their education systems and programmes in biology and chemistry degrees. Thus, the students will find, for instance, how the subjects are taught in other countries. And this recalls the culture as a critical factor that this proposal intends to reinforce as part of the internationalisation process. Therefore, students will also acquire a substantial knowledge of at least one other culture – that with which the programme is set up – although an awareness of multiple cultures is likely, as students with a variety of cultural backgrounds tend to attend any given current university. In this way, the students will exchange ideas and projects that are also connected to their ways of living.

Methodology The paper uses only one social network, so that the students and the teacher can focus on dealing with the

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activities proposed instead of being concerned about knowing how to juggle several social networks at the same time. I chose Diipo for several reasons: it allows users to easily share their documents, create lessons, blogs and projects, and each class can be connected with other classes. Moreover, this social network has two well-diferentiated roles: as a teacher or as a student. On the one hand, being a teacher user it is possible to create lessons within a specific area and it works as an ordinary social network. Thus, teachers can make announcements, write blog entries, follow the blogs and the projects of their students and grade them. On the other hand, the student users will have access to the tools and projects that the teacher has created for them and they can work with their virtual and local classmates. My proposal is based on a social constructivist approach, and following Williams and Burden (1997: 28), the students will adapt this curriculum in a way that reflects their own beliefs, ideas and feelings. Moreover, in this particular case, by using this social network the global learning experience will become a shared venture. This recalls Salmon’s view (1988: 22) of the idea that the human venture depends on a shared reality and, thus, it is essential to gain a common understanding in collaboration with others. In this case, Diipo will help to bolster the sense of teamwork and meaning negotiation. Another aspect that has been taken into account is the use of authentic materials. According to McDonough (1984) the term “authenticity” includes authentic language input, authentic tasks, and events. In this particular proposal, the social network Diipo would have a crucial role as a means of exchanging material through the option “courseware”. Thus, both teachers and students can post material such as videos, texts or links they consider relevant for the course.

Basic contents and activities The activities in this proposal are based on contents from Cambridge English for Scientists and TESOL’s New Ways in English for ESP since they focus on a scientific profile which is appropriate to higher education. These contents can be adapted to work with them through a social network, as it is illustrated in the proposed activities below. The activities could be organised into four major assignments that would deal with the writing, reading, listening and speaking skills: One of these assigments would deal with technical jargon, and the activity would be “Creating a multilingual glossary for biology or for chemistry”. The students would have to work in groups, with students from their own faculty and from abroad. Thus, students would create a glossary in their own language(s) and with the

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English equivalences in collaboration with others. For instance, if the other students are from Sweden, the students from Galicia would find out, apart from the English equivalences, the Swedish ones. In this way, students from the two countries would benefit from an extra language that may be useful for them. Another assigment would be dealing with writing and organising skills and the activity would be “Planning a career in Science”. The students would carry out an online discussion about their career options and offer each other advise. Moreover, they would have to write a sample CV and they would advise each other on writing a meaningful CV to highlight their strenghts and, after that, they would exchange their CV’s with a colleague so that they can compare their skills with those of their classmates and analyse the areas that they would need to improve. In the assigment dealing with comparing and contrasting technical writing styles, the activity would be “Comparing reports”. The students would have to compare the ways of writing different reports from companies from the scientific field of their own countries with those from other countries. Thus, they would familiarise with the structures that others use to write their reports and how they address the different parts, the grammar and the style, among others. The students would have to develop this activity through a blog that they must create with Diipo. In the section dealing with oral skills, the activity “Speaking with others and carrying out an oral presentation” would serve as a way of training their oral fluency. The students will have to carry out a series of videoconferences using Skype or any other suitable means with others to discuss about a topic related to the contents of the course. For instance, as an icebreaker session, students could talk about their career plans for the future, the scientific fields that are more interesting for them or the difficulties they might be experiencing in their degrees at that moment. Moreover, they could exchange impressions on each other’s universities, about the differences and similarities of their curriculum plans or how the lessons are explained or about any scientifical area that is especially relevant in their country. Apart from the videoconferences with their partners abroad, students would have to carry out a final presentation about the blog they had to write.

Conclusions This paper has proposed a curriculum that benefits from the social network Diipo. The curriculum is based

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on the English language needs of Galician universities and their spin-off companies and on their claimed need for internationalisation. This proposal reasserts the position that social networks are ideal tools for teaching languages as they allow students to experience different learning processes while being both more autonomous and, at the same time, learning in collaboration with others. Besides, students would gain more confidence to communicate in English in any different situations, and particularly in the scientific field. Moreover, they would acquire new approaches on different cultures and they would learn to express their opinions and demonstrate respect for others’ opinions. In this way, students would work on the English skills that the Galician spin-off companies are requiring and they, as future workers of these companies, could transmit the importance of the intercultural competences so that the companies can also have more presence abroad. Therefore, social networks would contribute then to the internationalisation process that the Galician universities and spin-off companies are developing.

References Alcón, E. (2011). “La internacionalización de los estudiantes universitarios”. La Cuestión Universitaria 7:

32-39.

URL:

http://www.lacuestionuniversitaria.upm.es/web/articulo.php?id_articulo=81

[19/04/2013] Borau, K., C. Ullrich, J. Feng & R. Shen (2009). “Microblogging for language learning: Using Twitter to train communicative and cultural competence”. Advances in Web Based Learning–ICWL, LNCS 5686: 78-87. URL: http://etec.ctlt.ubc.ca/510wiki/images/a/ad/Can-we-use-Twitter-for-educationalactivities.pdf [06/02/13] Dudley-Evans, A. & M.J. St. John (1998). Developments in English for Specific Purposes: A Multidisciplinary Approach, 53. Cambridge: CUP. Master, P. & D.M. Brinton (1998). New Ways in English for Specific Purposes. Illinois, USA: Pantagraph Printing. McDonough, J. (1984). ESP in perspective: A practical guide. London: Collins ELT. Ortiz de Urbina, P. & I. Cáceres (2010). “Redes sociales para el aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras: de Goethe a Rammstein con escala en Schubert”. Encuentro 19: 9-19. URL: http://dspace.uah.es/dspace/ handle/10017/10091 [16/02/13]

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Ruipérez García, G., M.D. Castrillo de Larreta-Azelain & J.C. García Cabrero (2011). “El uso de Twitter para mejorar la competencia de la expresión escrita en el aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras”. Arbor: Ciencia, Pensamiento y Cultura 18: 162-163. URL: http://arbor.revistas.csic.es/index.php/arbor/ article/viewArticle/1420 [22/02/13] Salmon, P. (1988). Psychology for teachers: an alternative approach, 22. London: Hutchinson. Tamzen, A. (2011). Cambridge English for Scientists. Cambridge: CUP. Tomé, M. (2010). “Enseñanza y aprendizaje de la pronunciación de una lengua extranjera en la web 2.0”. Revista de Lingüística y Lenguas Aplicadas 5: 221-239. URL: http://riunet.upv.es/bitstream/ handle/10251/10670/771-1444-1-SM.pdf?sequence=1 [18/01/2013] Williams, M. & R. L. Burden (1997). “An introduction to educational psychology: behaviourism and cognitive psychology” in Psychology for Language Teachers: A Social Constructivist Approach, 28. Cambridge: CUP. NOTES 1

URL:http://www.udc.es/export/sites/udc/goberno/_galeria_down/vice_planificacion_economica_e_

infraestruturas/ope/es/metodoloxia.pdf [13/02/2013] 2

URL:http://www.usc.es/export/sites/default/gl/goberno/vrcalidade/descargas/proplanestrUSC_2011-20.

pdf [13/02/2013] 3

URL: http://webs.uvigo.es/estrategos/ [13/02/2013]

4

URL:http://ciencias.udc.es/images/Study_Biology_in_English_at_the_University_of_A_

Coru%C3%B1a.pdf [02/05/2013] 5

See, for instance, page 29, URL:

http://zquidec1.usc.es/taboleiro/documentos%20taboleiro/Memoria%20Grado%20Quimica_reformadaACSUG.pdf [17/04/2013] See page 4, URL: http://www.usc.es/export/sites/default/gl/servizos/sxopra/descargas/Memoria_Grao_Bioloxia_ANECA. pdf [17/04/2013]

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See, for instance, pages 4, 26 and 27. URL:

http://quimica.uvigo.es/decanatoquimica/tl_files/quimica/Oferta%20de%20estudios/Memoria%20 Grao%20en%20Quimica.pdf [17/04/2013] See page 4. URL: http://www.facultadbiologiavigo.es/tl_files/Documentos%20PDF/UVIGrado_en_Biologia.pdf [17/04/2013] 7

URL: http://www.udc.es/cufie/ufa/pae/cursos/md111.html [21/10/13]

8

URL: http://www.udc.es/ori/inf_estudiantes_UDC/practicas_empresas/becas-hi-training.html

[10/10/2013] 9

URL: http://www.usc.es/gl/perfis/internacional/mobilidade/index.html [01/07/2013]

10

URL: http://www.uvigo.es/uvigo_gl/administracion/ori/uvigo/ [01/07/2013]

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SECMA tool: new software for standard maritime English teaching Rosa Mary de la Campa Portela Universidad de A Coruña (Spain) Ana Bocanegra Valle Universidad de Cádiz (Spain)

Abstract In this paper we present SECMA tool, a computer based training tool developed by Spanish researchers, aimed at training vessel traffic service operators and ship officers in relation to critical communications, stressing the use of the SMCP. Also, SECMA tool is compared to several software programs commercially available for the teaching of these Phrases with the aim of highlighting the benefits of using this tool.

Key Words: maritime communications, maritime English, computer-based learning.

La herramienta SECMA: un nuevo programa informático para la docencia de las frases normalizadas de inglés marítimo

Resumen En este trabajo presentamos SECMA, un programa informático desarrollado por investigadores españoles y que tiene por objeto servir de herramienta para la formación de oficiales de buques y operadores de servicios de tráfico marítimo en las comunicaciones durante la navegación, haciendo hincapié en el uso de las frases normalizadas para las comunicaciones marítimas. Asimismo, comparamos SECMA con otros programas informáticos que se encuentran disponibles en el mercado para la enseñanza de dicho lenguaje normalizado a fin de mostrar los beneficios que ofrece esta nueva herramienta para la docencia de inglés marítimo.

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Palabras clave: comunicaciones marítimas, inglés marítimo, aprendizaje por ordenador.

Introduction The use of the English language in the maritime industry is regulated by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) so that all countries with maritime education centres shall include maritime English teaching in their maritime education and training curriculum. IMO has made a great effort towards the standardization of maritime vocabulary with the final drafting, approval and publication of the Standard Marine Communication Phrases (IMO, 2001), or SMCP for short. Although these standard phrases are based on the spoken variety of English language that has been used in everyday maritime communications worldwide, the main problem for the user and learner arise from their printed arrangement, which makes them decontextualised (Pritchard, 2003). Therefore, in order to make it teachable they must be contextualised into a definite number of scripts and scenarios using complementary tools such as simulators, and new interactive media which can significantly enhance their learning process and contribute to reinforce the communicative approach (Díaz Pérez, 2002; Pritchard, 2003). In this paper we present SECMA tool, a computer based training tool developed by Spanish researchers, aimed at training vessel traffic service operators and ship officers in relation to critical communications, stressing the use of the SMCP. SECMA tool is also compared to several software programs commercially available for the teaching of these phrases with the aim of highlighting the benefits of using this tool.

SECMA project The SECMA (“System for the detection and evaluation of human errors in maritime communications”/ Sistema de detección y evaluación de los errores en las comunicaciones marítimas) project was developed within the framework of the Spanish National Plan for Scientific Investigation, Development and Technological Innovation (2004-2007), National Programme of Means of Transport/Sub-programme of Maritime Transport, and was financed by the Spanish Education and Science Office.

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The partners to this project are: • safety and human factors investigation institute (ESM), as project coordinator. They have broad experience in human factors and error analysis research, and developed several projects in different work environments, such as the development and use of training simulators; • maritime safety training centre “Jovellanos”, founded to provide maritime education and training at basic and specialized levels, as well as to assess interested companies and the development of research projects; • Simulare L.S. Company, dedicated to engineering, development, monitoring and control of technological projects; • University of A Coruña: the University Centre for Research Support has a set of specialised tools and services capable of assisting scientific, technical and humanistic research. The main objective of this project was to confirm and analyse the lack of safety levels that arise as a consequence of human error in maritime operations, highlighting communication errors between vessel traffic operators and ship crews. One of the outcomes of this project was SECMA: software aimed at training vessel traffic service operators and ship officers in relation to critical communications, stressing the use of the SMCP.

SECMA tool With the aim of improving training for vessel traffic service operators and ship officers without changing the established system of work shifts, this tool was designed as a multimedia tool that allows individual training with all advantages offered by this kind of software and facilitates training courses for students with different knowledge levels and offers assessment on an automated basis. The methodology developed in this tool is divided into two main steps: • Learning of the SMCP: o translation of standard phrases into English language o multiple choice exercises supported by video or listening

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o true or false exercises based on video or listening • Application of acquired knowledge in a setting that simulates the peculiar environment and location conditions of maritime operation. The student is given a particular situation and provided with useful data to solve, in a proper manner, the exercise using the standard phrases learnt in the previous step. To follow this methodology and reach the initial objectives, this tool was structured in four modules with linked contents allowing the student to make progress. Modules 1, 2 and 3 have theoretical contents accompanied by videos and voice records that give examples and make learning easier. In addition, the student must do a series of exercises to put into practice the knowledge acquired, needed to progress effectively through this tool. In Module 4, Scenes, the student has access to a total of 10 scenarios that simulate different situations where the use of SMCPs is needed. In this way, s/he can put into practice all aspects included in SECMA tool contents, adopting several roles: vessel traffic system operator, officer on watch and pilot, with the aim of covering all possible situations during SMCP use. Once the scene has been selected, the interaction/conversation between student and software begins. When the software or student produces a standard phrase, the phrase will be “vocalised” by the system allowing the student to hear and practise the correct pronunciation. In this way, not only training in the contents of standard phrases is provided but also training in pronunciation, intonation and other aspects of conversation.

Comparison between SECMA tool and other SMCP teaching software Seamen’s training does not come to an end when students graduate; instead, it continues during all their professional life and, therefore, the use of new technologies can turn into a basic tool which allows them to continue their training on board, to extend their knowledge or to update the one learnt in the past (de la Campa & Bocanegra, 2007; Bocanegra & de la Campa, 2011). Nowadays there is a wide variety of products available for English language teaching which makes use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) as an educational tool. However, in the general case of Maritime English, and, particularly, for the teaching/learning of the SMCP, such availability is by no means scarce, expensive and commercially limited. In this section, and following de la Campa, Bocanegra & Rodríguez, (2007) we shall review four current software programs explicitly designed for such purpose.

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These are: 1) IMO SMCP on CD: A pronunciation guide (IMO, 2002): This PC CD serves as a pronunciation guide to assist both learners and current users worldwide –hence, it does not include any kind of further practice (i.e., exercises or tests). The whole program is based on simple rules of thumb: each part shows the sections and subsections included and, by clicking on each heading progressively, the contained corresponding phrases are brought over. A colour code is used in the lists of phrases that pop out so that the user may know at any time which section or subsection s/he is dealing with. It does not contain either exercises or evaluation, but a wide and well arranged textual and audible reference to the SMCP. As such, the only macro-skill to be explicitly trained is listening, and, more particularly, the micro-skills of listening for sounds, intonation, and content statements. 2) Seagull™ SMCP courses (Seagull, 2004): At present Seagull™ offers two courses for the teaching of the SMCP: the 145 Course SMCP Distress, Urgency and Safety Part 1; and the 146 Course SMCP Navigation and Cargo Handling Part 2. It takes into consideration scenarios showing the use of a wide variety of English language accents and offers theoretical material and audible examples regarding the use of the SMCP in situations of distress, urgency and safety. It also controls the contents learned by providing self-assessment listening practice. It does not offer traditional learning exercises and the user is limited to browsing trough several chapters of the course and listening to the sample conversations provided for the different emergency situations. 3) Marinesoft™ Maritime English Training (Marinesoft, 2006): This course is based on the fulfilment of exercises and training through situational contexts with the help of several multimedia resources. The most common exercises are: fill in gaps, multiple choice, order text, message markers, match item, basic listening, and listening and repeat. Some of these exercises also offer opportunities for the supplementary training of writing and reading since they require the comprehension of simulated situations in order to complete the exercise successfully, or they demand writing tasks from any part of the conversation. 4) Safe sailing SMCP Training for seafarers (Murrel, Nagliati & Canestri, 2009): It features a variety of interactive exercises to give seafarers the practice they need to use SMCP confidently and effectively. Provides model audio for each phrase and enables users to record and play back their own voice, helping them to improve their spoken delivery. It enables users to monitor their own progress with regular, ready-made tests and allows learners to focus on their particular needs by

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creating their own lessons. Table 1 in the Appendix shows a comparison between these SMCP teaching software and SECMA tool following the criteria established by Pritchard (2004) checklist: 1. External criteria: 1.a. Software and hardware: Hardware platform required and software needed as prerequisite. 1.b. Teaching-learning situation: Intended audience (students, officers, VTS operators), proficiency level (elementary, intermediate, advance), context (face to face classes, blended learning, e-learning, self-study). 1.c. Program design: How is the program loaded and run (auto-run CD or computer installation required), presentation friendly and intuitive, navigation means to jump back, forward, etc. (keyboard, mouse, screen icons), means to exit program at any point (key-board, screen icon), output features (sound, graphics, video, written fonts), instructions for users provided, presentation and organization of language into teachable units, vocabulary list provided, exercises provided, selfassessment provided, opportunity to print, opportunity to save uncompleted tasks or scores. 2. Internal criteria: Type of language involved (British accent, US accent, other accents), translation into other languages, style and register of language (authentic or made up), skills of language most focused (speaking, listening, reading, writing), comprehension ensured by means of drawings, comprehension ensured by means of meaning explanation, class work required (whole class, pair or group work, individual, class work not required), opportunity to record user’s voice, exercise and task types (cloze, role play, multiple choice, free composition, etc.), contents graded and sequenced, full SMCP pronunciation list, SMCP sequence reference, scores of assessment provided and additional material available. 3. Other criteria: price

Discussion and conclusions The comparison of SECMA tool with other SMCP software available shows several similarities among them, such as a friendly and intuitive presentation, a made up style of language, and the reference made to SMCP sequence.

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They have been designed for self-study but can be used in face to face lessons but they cannot be used for e-learning due to the platform used in their design and because their content cannot be accessed from a “remote” computer neither be up-loaded to an e-learning platform. Moreover, although class work is not required a priori, their contents can be used as the basis for reinforcing class work. On the other hand we can observe several differences between SECMA and the other software studied. Such differences can be subdivided into advantages and disadvantages. SECMA main disadvantages are related to the lack of vocabulary list and the absence of self assessment. Also the impossibility of saving uncompleted task or scores and the limitations to print are important drawbacks. With regard to SECMA advantages we can highlight the diversity of output features (it is the only one that offers video), the means to ensure comprehension is done by meaning explanation and drawings (only Marinesoft offers it), the contents are graded and sequenced (only Marinesoft offers it), a full list of SMCP is provided (only IMO SMCP on CD offers it), and also additional material is provided. Moreover and important advantage of this software for Spanish-speaking users is that translation into Spanish of all its contents is provided. Together with this, it is important to highlight that the instructions provided for users are more detailed than those offered by the other software available. Finally, the price of this software makes it very affordable. So, while other tools that offer similar quality and diversity in contents can only be purchased by companies, SECMA tool can be afforded by any seafarer worldwide and freely benefit from its very high quality contents.

References Bocanegra Valle, A. & R.M. de la Campa (2011). “Maritime English teaching and ICTs: The practitioners’ point of view” in N. Talaván Zanón, E. Martín Monje & F. Palazón Romero (eds.), Technological Innovation in the Teaching and Processing of  LSPs: Proceedings of  TISLID´10, 55-68. Madrid: Editorial UNED. de la Campa Portela, R., A. Bocanegra Valle & B. Rodríguez Gómez (2007). “Software assessment for the teaching/learning of the Standard Marine Communication Phrases” in M. Kuteeva & H.F. Martins

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(eds.), Teaching and Learning LSP: Blurring Boundaries. Proceedings of the 6th International AELFE Conference, 414-421. Lisboa: ISCAL. de la Campa Portela, R.M. & A. Bocanegra Valle (2007). “New technologies as tools to support maritime technical English teaching”. The Eurocall Review 12: 23-58. Díaz Pérez, J.M. (2002). “IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases and teaching their use in the Vessel Traffic Services context” in Proceedings of the 3rd International Congress on Maritime Innovations and Research, 649-658. Bilbao: Universidad del País Vasco. IMO (2001). Standard Marine Communication Phrases. Resolution A. 918(22), 29 November 2001. London: International Maritime Organization. IMO (2002). Standard Marine Communication Phrases on CD-Rom. London: International Maritime Organization. MarineSoft (2006). MarineSoft’s SMCP and Marine Language Training. Rostock: MarineSoft. Murrell, S., P. Nagliati & C.S. Canestri (2009). Safe Sailing SMCP Training for Seafarers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pritchard, B. (2003). Maritime Communications and IMO SMCP 2001 (draft version). http://www.pfri. uniri.hr/~bopri/documents/MaritimeCommunicationsandSMCP_001.pdf [11/06/2012] Pritchard, B. (2004). A Survey of Maritime English Teaching Materials. A Report on the Current State of the Art. Tokyo: IAMU. Seagull (2004). SMCP- Distress, Urgency and Safety Part 1. Horten: Seagull.

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Seagull

Marinesoft

Safe

on CD

SMCP

ME Training

Sailing

SECMA TOOL

Courses EXTERNAL CRITERIA SOFTWARE & HARDWARE Hardware

CD-Rom Drive CD-Rom Drive CD-Rom Drive CD-Rom Drive CD-Rom Drive

platform

Sound card.

required

450 Mhz.

Sound card

Sound card

Sound card

Sound card

Graphic card

Graphic card

Graphic card

Graphic card

300 Mhz

300 Mhz

800 Mhz

800 Mhz

/128MB RAM /128MB RAM

/256MB RAM /256MB RAM

Other software

Windows 95 or Windows 98

Windows 98

Windows XP

Windows 2000

needed as

later

Internet

or Vista

Real Player

Explorer 6.0

Real Player

prerequisite

Real Player

Macromedia Flash Player Real Player TEACHINGLEARNING SITUATION Intended

Students,

Students,

Students,

Students,

Officers, VTS

officers, VTS Intermediate

officers, VTS Intermediate/

officers Elementary/

Intermediate/

Self-study

Self-study

Advance Self-study

Intermediate Self-study

Advance Self-study

DESIGN How is the

Auto run CD-

Installed on

Installed on

Auto run CD-

Auto run CD-

program loaded

Rom

computer

computer

Rom

Rom

Search for

Start icon on

Start Icon

desk

audience officers, VTS Proficiency level Intermediate Context PROGRAM

and run

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NO

YES

YES

YES

YES

Mouse

Screen icons

Screen icons

Mouse

Screen icons

Screen icon

Screen icon

Screen icon

Screen icon

Screen icon

Written fonts /

Images/

Images/ written Written fonts / Written fonts/

sounds

written fonts/

fonts /sounds

NO

sounds YES

NO

teachable units Vocabulary list

presentation friendly and intuitive? Navigation means to jump back, forward, etc. Means to exit program at any point Output features

sounds

image/ sound /

YES

YES

video YES

YES

YES

NO

YES

NO

NO

YES

YES

NO

provided Exercises

NO

NO

YES

YES

YES

provided Self assessment

NO

YES

YES

YES

NO

provided Opportunity to

NO

NO

YES

YES

NO

print Opportunity

NO

YES

YES

NO

NO

Are instructions for users provided? Presentation of language into

to save uncompleted tasks or scores IMO SMCP on Seagull SMCP Marinesoft ME Safe Sailing CD

Courses

Training

British accent

Several

Artificial voice

accents

production

NO

NO

SECMA TOOL

INTERNAL CRITERIA Type of language involved Translation into other languages

NO

British accent

British accent

NO

YES (Spanish)

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Made up

Made up

Made up

Made up

of language Skills of language Listening

Listening

Listening /

Listening/

Listening /

Reading /

reading /

reading / writing

writing

speaking / YES

most focused

Is

NO

YES

YES

writing NO

NO

NO

YES

NO

YES

NO

NO

NO

YES

NO

NO

NO

NO

NO

NO

NONE

NONE

Fill in/ multiple Listening/

comprehension ensured by means of drawings? Is comprehension ensured by means of meaning explanation? Opportunity to record user’s voice Class work required Exercise and task types

True false/

choice/ drag

word order/ fill multiple choice/

and drop/ text

in/ text order/

drag and drop

order/ match

drag and

composition/ /

item/ scenarios

drop/ multiple

scenarios YES

Contents graded NO

NO

YES

choice NO

and sequenced Full SMCP

YES

YES

NO

NO

list provided SMCP sequence YES

NO

NO

NO

YES

reference Scores of

YES

YES

YES

NO

NO

pronunciation

assessment provided

YES

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NO

NO

YES

< 50 EUROS

> 500 EUROS > 500 EUROS

NO

YES

50- 100

FREE

material available OTHER CRITERIA:

EUROS

PRICE Table 1. Comparison between SMCP software and SECMA.

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Learning the integration of DDL in Secondary Education EFL teaching: The importance of ESP Alejandro Curado Fuentes Universidad de Extremadura

Abstract Most studies on DDL (Data-driven Learning) in EFL (English as a foreign language) learning contexts described over the past decade point to the importance of effective classroom integration. Teaching possibilities with DDL constitutes a major undertaking, as not one definite element may be pinned down as to what really constitutes normalised DDL use in FL teaching (cf. Boulton, 2010; 2011). This paper adds, in this line, a description of a local DDL situation where 15 students enrolled in a Master’s degree of Secondary Education (English Philology) face corpus data for teaching purposes. The students’ work and impressions on DDL varied, as the hypothesis that it could be considered as an advantageous pedagogic dimension was both confirmed and rejected via its different results. The three tools to analyse the information are questionnaires at the beginning and end of the course, their actual performance in the DDL assignments, and their application of this knowledge and skills in teaching situations. Overall, four types of attitudes and abilities are identified at the end of this case study: 1) Students with good technology and corpus skills who could induce teaching applications; 2) students who could use the tools well and produced good results, applying them for linguistic / translation work, but not for teaching; 3) students who could use the tools and understood the mechanics, but could not apply them beyond the scope of the activity, and 4) students who understood little or nothing about the tools and their possible applications. The case study is obviously limited and must be contrasted with other scenarios, but may contribute some ideas for various aspects of DDL and FL teaching. One positive aspect is that for groups 1 and 2 above, awareness about specific contexts / registers in ESP increased significantly in comparison with the other groups. We could argue in favour of a less restrained attitude on the part of general English curricula administrations to involve LSP approaches, where corpus tools can be useful.

Keywords: DDL, Secondary Education, corpus tools, EFL, registers

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Resumen La mayoría de estudios sobre DDL (Aprendizaje de lengua con datos) en los contextos del ILE (Inglés como lengua extranjera) descritos en los últimos diez años señalan la importancia de una integración efectiva en el aula. Las posibilidades de la docencia mediante técnicas del modelo DDL es aún un espacio por consolidar, ya que no existe un elemento definitivo sobre qué constituye el uso normalizado de DDL en la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras (cf. Boulton, 2010; 2011). En este sentido, dentro de este abanico de posibilidades variopintas, este trabajo aporta una descripción de un contexto local de DDL donde 15 estudiantes de un Master en Educación Secundaria (especialidad en Filología Inglesa) tienen que trabajar con datos de corpus para fines pedagógicos. El rendimiento y las apreciaciones de los estudiantes fueron distintas, tal y como demuestran los diferentes resultados derivados de confirmar o no la hipótesis de que DDL pudiera considerarse como una dimensión de aprendizaje ventajosa. Los mecanismos para analizar estos datos fueron los de cuestionarios al principio y final de curso, el desarrollo concreto de las tareas DDL, y la aplicación del conocimiento o habilidades manejadas en otros contextos de enseñanza. En general, se identifican cuatro tipos de actitudes y habilidades al final de este estudio: 1) las de los estudiantes que demuestran tener buenas destrezas tecnológicas y de corpus, que fueron capaces de inducir implicaciones pedagógicas; 2) las de los que utilizaron bien las herramientas y también produjeron resultados positivos, los cuales aplicaron a análisis del lenguaje y traducción, pero no a la enseñanza del idioma; 3) las de estudiantes que supieron usar las herramientas y entendieron su mecánica, pero que no demostraron poder aplicar este conocimiento más allá de la propia actividad; y 4) las de aquellos que apenas entendieron algo de las actividades y herramientas así como sus posibles aplicaciones. Este estudio de caso es obviamente limitado y debe contrastarse con más escenarios, pero ya podría ilustrar con algunas ideas acerca de distintos aspectos del DDL y la enseñanza de una LE. Un factor positivo es el de que para los grupos 1 y 2 mencionados, aumentó significativamente el reconocimiento de distintos contextos / registros específicos en IFE durante las tareas en comparación con los otros grupos. Podríamos así apoyarnos en esto para fomentar una actitud menos restrictiva entre los gestores de documentación académica para que incluyan enfoques de LFE donde se integren las herramientas de corpus.

Palabras clave: DDL, Educación Secundaria, herramientas de corpus, ILE, registros

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Introduction The Bologna adaptation has implied for FL learning, among other things, to foster the shift from traditional input-driven and theory-focused teaching to a focus on the learners and the learning outcomes and objectives of that being taught. The ESP practitioner may have profited from this setting, where the Spanish and international academic community may blend easily and practically (e.g., via academic exchanges, projects, etc). However, due to economic restrictions, among other factors, we know that this ideal scenario is still far from materializing. Another aspect is that many EFL students (and faculty) in Spain tend to lack the necessary communicative skills and, what is even more important, training facilities to realize this approach. In this reality, there is a growing need to move “from prioritizing ‘words and structures’, to prioritizing ‘texts and purposes’, to prioritizing ‘learners and genres’, (…) and ‘contexts and interactions’” (Upton 2012: 26). DDL (Datadriven learning) techniques may come useful in this context, as inducing / communicative skills may be fostered via task-based reasoning and problem/solution developments, a process that should be inherent in the nature of DDL and that could encompass different learning styles and attitudes (cf. Boulton, 2011; Aijmer, 2010). As claimed by most DDL scholars, teaching possibilities with DDL still constitutes a major challenge for EFL contexts, as not one definite element may be pinned down as to what really constitutes normalised DDL use in education, especially when going beyond the university setting (cf. Boulton, 2010; Mauranen, 2004). For Secondary Education, this approach is often viewed as a risky / compromising undertaking, since the doing research with language or being a student detective of language use premises, traditionally related to DDL (i.e., Johns, 1991), do not seem appropriate for younger learners, whose level and learning profiles may draw on entirely different needs and procedures (cf. Braun, 2007; Pérez-Paredes, 2010). DDL investigation should then be modified, or, perhaps, minimized / re-formulated in non-university settings. Our own case study falls into the research path where DDL techniques are used in university settings, but in this case, the aim is to see if the DDL exploitation by 15 students enrolled in the local University Master in Secondary Education (English Philology) (MESO) may affect those students’ attitudes towards EFL teaching at Secondary level. This possibility motivated our incursion into DDL activities during the course, measuring prospective non-university teachers’ skills, knowledge and attitudes regarding DDL in younger learners’ teaching contexts. The hypothesis was that users may or may not find DDL integration useful, and so, why this may or may not be the case was the

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main question to be answered via questionnaires, assignment performance, and teaching discussions /solutions.

The setting The 15 students in MESO have been evaluated during one whole academic year: first in a Linguistics / Applied Linguistics course (Fundamentos científicos I) and secondly, in a Didactics course (Fundamentos científicos II), taught respectively in the first and second semesters of 2012/2013. The view in both courses is that the students may receive teacher training as well-qualified teachers open to resources such as corpus technology (cf. Boulton, 2011). This scope does not necessarily mean that they become language researchers, but that they get familiarized with DDL concepts for the observation of language use and variation, and with how such elements may play important roles for FL teaching. Other issues seen in this process include the types of English to be taught, authenticity in materials, technology applications, ELF (English as a Lingua Franca) where ESP / EAP stand strong, and the possible shifting from traditional Philology studies in text analysis to corpus involvement (cf. Paltridge, 2009; Hyland, 2012; Meyer, 2013). The 15 students were between 23-26 years old, and most had an average B2 language level, with some in C1 and others in B1. Four main tools were used to evaluate this case study: 1) A pre-questionnaire (at the beginning of the first semester) on their general views / impressions about EFL teaching and learning, material authenticity, etc; 2) Their performance in the different DDL tasks and activities; 3) A postquestionnaire (at the end of the first semester) about their impressions on the DDL assignments; and 4) The observation of their competence to apply on their own such skills and knowledge in different didactic activities during the second semester (in the second course).

Results The first hand-out given to students on the first day of class sought to identify their personal notions and ideas about EFL teaching/learning. The 15 open answer questions aimed to have them explore their subjective thinking to offer pre-established ideas at this preliminary phase, expecting to find both clichés and innovating positions, but not knowing to what extent in either case. Table 1 displays a summary of the data with the most important percentages (rounded up) that helped us to envision this student-based EFL scope.

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Varieties of

Authentic

Textbooks

English Depends

material Depends

Collaborative

(54%) Depends

(54%) Yes

(56%) No

(48%) Induce

(24%)

(24%)

Learn by doing

Real material

(30%) No

(30%) Yes

(13%) Communicative

(18%)

(18%)

(14%)

(14%)

(13%)

Best method

EFL resources

Communicative (30%)

Teach grammar Rules

Table 1. Some questions answered by students in pre-questionnaire

Overall, most notions are positive regarding communicative / collaborative means for language learning, although that is not the case for grammar (it is for other elements and skills, such as vocabulary and speaking). The textbook is still considered as the most important type of resource for teaching, but comments on real material and real English use were also significantly present. Language command or level was also deemed as an important factor to make one’s mind about using authentic material and varieties of English other than RP or standard from Britain. In this type of situation, the use of DDL by using corpora online is unknown to all the students, especially to observe English use across registers and induce examples for possible language learning guidelines. In four of the six units that formed the first semester course, some DDL activities and tasks were exploited (in class and at home). The ones in class usually involved teacher supervision and guidance, and dealt with direct questions about linguistic / rhetorical phenomena (e.g., lexico-grammatical features in specific verbs, nouns, adjectives, and so on, which often required linguistics knowledge on collocations, semantic preference, colligation, etc). The concept of lexical priming (cf. Hoey, 2005) was also explained as the need arose (e.g., distinctive markers used in news texts versus fiction). Some corpora managed were COCA (Corpus of Contemporary American English), BNC (British National Corpus) COHA (Corpus of Historical American English), Hong Kong Corpus of University Texts, MICASE (Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English), BAWE (British Academic corpus of Writing in English), Google books, Leeds corpus, and Wordsmith tools with home-tagged news texts. Another group of tasks had students explore the data on their own to resolve language / grammar questions

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for teaching purposes. An example is whether the traditional rule of “shall” versus “will” was respected by the data, and if not, to give statistical reasons and examples. While the direct supervised questions were usually answered correctly by most learners, the free-exploration questions were responded less authoritatively, especially in terms of statistics. Less than one third of the class actually produced convincing data in this respect. At the end of the course, the post-questionnaire aimed to collect the students’ anonymous answers to the 12 questions below about the use of DDL and its possible teaching applications. Some percentages are as follows: --Did you find DDL useful? Yes (60%) --Why or why not?

Depends (16%)

Gave good information (42%)

Specific use (24%)

Difficult (18%)

--What did you like most about the tasks?

No (24%)

Variation in English (42%)

Vocabulary (24%)

--What did you like least about the tasks? Technology problems (42%)

Confusing (24%)

--Which corpus/corpora did you like the most? COCA (54%) --Why? Lots of information (36%) Very applicable (24%) --What purposes would you use this corpus for? Writing (24%)

Vocabulary learning (24%)

--Do you think corpora are better than other technology for language exploration?

Yes (76%)

No (24%)

--Do you think corpora could be used for teaching in Secondary Education?

Yes (33%) No (33%) Depends on level (33%)

--If you said you’d use corpora in High School, what would you use it for?

Vocabulary (24%) Grammar (18%) Variation in English (12%)

--If you said you’d not use corpora in High School, why not?

Difficult (24%)

Useless (18%) Too much information, confusing (18%)

--What is the main feature about DDL that is positive for FL learning?

Many examples (24%) More information than textbooks (18%) Variation (13%)

Table 2. Summary of answers to post-questionnaire



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In general, most students responded positively to the survey, even assuring in their intentions that DDL could be used more for prospective teaching implications. The concept of inducing linguistic knowledge from the data was expressed in both surveys and class comments, despite that some (fewer) students position themselves negatively towards this DDL use, mainly, as contrasted in class, because of their less favourable attitude towards technologies in general. Nonetheless, the possible applications of DDL use that students claimed in this questionnaire should be demonstrated with their actual reasoning and examples during the tasks that the second semester course on teaching proposed. The assignments were given to students for homework, and they were instructed to use any resources they may deem as convenient, but never told explicitly to use DDL. Three distinctive situations may be recalled in this classroom observation process: 1) On dealing with adjective order before nouns, one third of the class used the COCA corpus to illustrate, with examples, how students might induce types of adjectives that come before one another. One of the students stated that this could be done with younger students because the POS (Part of Speech) tags were easy to show, and the examples were clear and concise. Some examples from fiction and spoken registers could also be compared to the young learners’ own production of examples with teacher-handed cards. 2) In unit 3, we examined university learner writing in blogs, noticing strengths and weaknesses in Spanish writers of English at a B1 level. One student brought to our attention that she used the BAWE corpus to compare some compositions with essays written by other non-native writers. She found interesting comparisons in the faulty use of some markers, collocations, and spelling. Other students were eager to pursue this path of error comparison in the future. 3) In unit 5, another task involving learner error analysis prompted the use of COCA and BAWE by three students, who reviewed mistakes in collocations (e.g., treat + topic), colligations (e.g., arriving + to), and adapting to registers (e.g., I’m agreed in...) by offering the real uses instead. These students favoured the employment of DDL in High School to review such mistakes with students in class. One of the students (the same one as in point 2 above) even suggested that the corpus-driven examples could be printed and / or reduced to manage them more easily at the High School level, and that after such a warm-up activity, the students could be led into the computer to see similar findings.

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Conclusions The observation of the data via the media applied in the two MESO courses has led to the classification of DDL teaching attitudes and skills into four groups: 1) 3 students (20 percent of the class) demonstrated grown awareness and knowledge about the possibilities of DDL for language learning. This group of students also had an overall higher command of English than the others, and tended to understand / explore the variety of activities from a communicative / inductive perspective. They use and aim to use DDL as part of their own training and teaching unit preparation activities. 2) 3 other students also showed positive attitudes and performed well in all tasks (not as well in the free exploration ones though). They liked the technology and used it well for language analysis and collaborative work to investigate real English use. However, unlike group 1, they did not reproduce this knowledge in teaching scenarios. Instead, they considered DDL as advantageous for aspects such as writing style correction and translation into English. 3) 6 students (40 percent) also did the activities well, especially the directed ones in class. They understood the technology and learned what DDL can do for linguistic knowledge. Nonetheless, they foundered when conveying this knowledge via questionnaires and class discussions of homework. They were agnostic about DDL use in Secondary School, but regarded the option as possible, especially depending on the type of course, language level, etc. 4) 3 other students (20 percent) did not produce good results, although they completed all the assignments in class, often “forced” by time pressure and grade. They did extremely poorly in the free exploration tasks at home (which displayed their lack of interest and / or involvement). They never got into the concept of DDL for language learning, and stayed on their path of preference for more traditional approaches. The problems with technology or their lack of understanding of the utilities, functions, and so on, served to reaffirm their negative attitude towards DDL. It thus seems feasible to integrate DDL in the teacher’s training options for Secondary School EFL teaching as long as there is openness to experience such options, for which the (pre)trained ability of the graduate student to approach learning by inducing and querying tends to be important. We could thus argue, in this line, for the broader scope of linguistic analysis and text investigation via on-line or home-made corpora at Philology degrees in Spain, where stylistics and literary studies already seem to include them in many

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contexts, but where the same emphasis tends to falter in terms of language register studies and / or teaching language corpora (cf. Mauranen, 2004; Pérez-Paredes, 2010; Boulton, 2010). The ideal scenario would thus be to have Philology and / or Education students use corpora from year one, thereby providing them with the needed mechanisms for both language learning adaptation and authenticity choices. Such specific practices of real English use and learning situation analyses may enhance their array of options for self-development, elaboration of teaching strategies, task design, student-centred learning, etc. The role of ESP or EAP where specific registers of English use are addressed would also be better recognized and applied for EFL and Philology studies.

References Aijmer, K. (ed.) (2010). Corpora and Language Teaching. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Boulton, A. (2010). “Data-driven learning: Taking the computer out of the equation”. Language Learning 60: 534-572. Boulton, A. (2011). “Data-driven learning: The perpetual enigma” in S. Gozdz-Roszkowski (ed.). Explorations across Languages and Corpora, 563-580. Frankfurt: Peter Lang. Braun, S. (2007). “Integrating corpus work into Secondary Education: From data-driven Learning to needsdriven corpora”. ReCALL 19: 397-328. Hoey, M. (2005). Lexical Priming: A New Theory of Words and Language. London: Routledge. Hyland, K. (2012). “Discipline and divergence: evidence of specificity in EAP” in S. Etherington (ed.). English for Specific Academic Purposes: Proceedings of the 2009 BALEAP Conference, 11-29. Reading: BALEAP. Johns, T. (199). “Should you be persuaded---Two examples of data-driven learning materials”. English Language Research Journal 4: 1-16. Mauranen, A. (2004). “Spoken – general: Spoken corpus for an ordinary learner” in J. McH. Sinclair (ed.). How to Use Corpora in Language Teaching, 89-105. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Meyer, C. (2013). Textual Analysis; From Philology to Corpus Linguistics. Amsterdam: Rodopi.

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Paltridge, B. (2009). “Afterword: where have we come from and where are we now?” in D. Belcher (ed.), English for Specific Purposes in Theory and Practice, 289-296. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Pérez-Paredes, P. (2010). “Corpus linguistics and language education in perspective: Appropriation and the possibilities Scenario” in T. Harris & M. Moreno Jaén (eds.), Corpus Linguistics in Language Teaching, 53-73. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Upton, T. A. (2012). “LSP at 50: Looking back, looking forward”. Ibérica 23: 9-28.

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El uso de las TIC en los cursos de Español Académico para alumnado Internacional Ana María Gil del Moral Universidad de Alicante (Spain)

Resumen Este artículo presenta el uso de las TIC en la docencia del curso de Español Académico para alumnado internacional impartido en la Universidad de Alicante (UA) dentro de la investigación que sobre dicha lengua de especialidad he realizado de 2010 a 2013. Exponer cómo seleccionar y utilizar las TIC para favorecer la asimilación de conceptos, el reconocimiento de tipologías textuales y el aprendizaje de vocabulario específico es el primer objetivo. Asimismo, mostrar cómo las TIC permiten personalizar las actividades abarcando los diferentes campos de conocimiento y las asignaturas cursadas por los estudiantes durante su estancia en la UA. A continuación, destacamos algunas de las conclusiones a las que hemos llegado tras la evaluación de los resultados obtenidos, y reflexionamos si acometer algunos cambios podría rentabilizar aún más el uso de las TIC en el aula, cuáles serían los pasos necesarios y qué dificultades podemos encontrar en el proceso.

Palabras clave: Español Académico, lengua de especialidad, alumnado de movilidad internacional, TIC en el aula, tipologías textuales, vocabulario específico.

Introducción El alumnado extranjero que se desplaza a la Universidad de Alicante (UA) gracias a una beca de movilidad internacional se enfrenta a diversos retos y dificultades desde su llegada. La primera y más destacada es no disponer del nivel de lengua mínimo que le permita cursar y superar con éxito las asignaturas que figuran en su acuerdo de aprendizaje, y por las que recibirá los créditos necesarios para completar los estudios en su universidad de origen. Pese a que el nivel de lengua exigido por la mayoría de acuerdos y programas de movilidad es un B1 del MCER, existen algunas universidades que o bien no se rigen por los niveles recogidos en este, o no consideran el requisito lingüístico un impedimento para que sus estudiantes opten a

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ellos. Aunque los alumnos reciben un curso gratuito de español (30 horas de lengua general) a su llegada, estipulado y garantizado en la mayoría de los convenios, un alto porcentaje sigue sin alcanzar el mínimo necesario para comprender el contenido de sus asignaturas y examinarse de ellas.

Los cursos de Español Académico (EA) en la UA Con el fin de facilitar la integración lingüística y cultural de los aprendices, la Dra. Susana Pastor Cesteros diseñó el curso de Español Académico para alumnos extranjeros de la UA (20 horas), que imparto personalmente desde su primera edición en el segundo cuatrimestre del curso académico 2010-2011, dentro de la investigación predoctoral que sobre esta lengua de especialidad he realizado de 2010 a 2013. El curso que está organizado por el Dpto. de Filología española, Lingüística General y Teoría de la Literatura, y el grupo de investigación Adquisición y Enseñanza de Segundas Lenguas y Lenguas Extranjeras de la Universidad de Alicante (ACQUA); acaba de concluir su quinta edición, y todas ellas las ha dirigido la Dra. Pastor. Los objetivos de dicho curso son los siguientes: • Que el alumno que ha estudiado varios años de lengua española, pero se enfrenta por primera vez a un curso universitario en español, desarrolle estrategias para un uso adecuado de esta modalidad de lengua. • Que sea capaz de manejarse en español con fines académicos, tanto desde un punto de vista lingüístico (comprender clases magistrales, redactar monografías y otros trabajos académicos) como desde un punto de vista sociocultural (entender el funcionamiento del sistema universitario en el que se realizará la estancia). • Que mejore el rendimiento académico de su estancia en la Universidad de Alicante. En enero de 2011 dirigí e impartí el curso de Español Académico enfocado al alumnado estadounidense participante en el programa de intercambio Spanish Studies Abroad, The Center for Cross-Cultural Study (CC-CS), cuya segunda edición tendrá lugar la primavera de 2014. Dadas las necesidades específicas de este tipo de estudiante y las diferencias existentes entre su sistema universitario y el español, especialmente en los cursos de grado, los objetivos se centran en: • Que el alumno sea capaz de manejarse en español académico desde un punto de vista lingüístico, con el fin de comprender clases magistrales, redactar trabajos académicos y hacer exámenes.

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• Que desarrolle las estrategias socioculturales necesarias que le permitan entender e integrarse en el sistema universitario español y participar en cualquier tipo de situación comunicativa académica. • Que conozca cómo funciona la Universidad de Alicante, mejore su rendimiento académico y supere con éxito las asignaturas que cursará durante su estancia. Hasta la fecha los han cursado más de 100 alumnos, de 21 nacionalidades diferentes y de edades comprendidas entre los 19 y los 37 años; matriculados la mayoría en estudios de grado (A.D.E., Arquitectura, Turismo, Biología, Economía, Informática, Historia, etc.), 8 en estudios de máster y 2 en estudio de doctorado. Provenir de disciplinas tan dispares suponía un reto a la hora de encontrar actividades que lograsen cumplir las expectativas de los aprendices y les permitiesen conocer la tipología textual y la terminología propias de su campo de estudio; así pues el primer día de clase completan un cuestionario de necesidades. Posteriormente, realizan una redacción sobre los motivos personales por los que cada uno se ha matriculado. Tras el análisis de ambos, es evidente que la única manera de lograr suplir las carencias lingüísticas de estos era recurrir a las TIC, de forma que tras la introducción de los temas teóricos comunes, puedan trabajar material de sus asignaturas y campos de estudio específicos. Además, resulta conveniente su uso ya que ayudan a despertar el interés de los nativos digitales, favorecen la participación y la interacción, y atienden a diferentes estilos de aprendizaje. El correo electrónico se introduce como actividad en cada uno de los tres módulos del curso: I. Módulo introductorio: Análisis de necesidades y descripción del sistema universitario español. II. Módulo para la comprensión auditiva (la clase magistral) y la expresión oral (exposiciones orales). III. Módulo para la expresión escrita: ¿Cómo se escribe un trabajo académico? ¿Cómo se redacta un examen? Refiriéndose a él como “cibergénero espontáneo” (Sheperd y Waters, 1998:99) o “texto electrónico” (López Alonso y Seré, 2003), se trata de un tipo de texto imprescindible para la comunicación en el sistema universitario actual (Llamas et al.,2012) y que los alumnos por tanto necesitan dominar. El Campus virtual de la UA permite una interacción directa profesor-alumno, por lo que en muchos casos ha desbancado a la tutoría presencial o la completa (Bartolomé, 1999:185). Las ventajas de esta nueva e-tutoring según Sanz Álava (2007:280) son: • el profesor contesta cuando su tiempo se lo permite,

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• el alumno lo puede hacer a la hora que le conviene, • a seguridad de que los mensajes llegan, • la comodidad de poder archivar el mensaje, • la posibilidad de intercambiar ficheros digitales de un modo más cómodo y eficaz. Sin embargo, para hacer un uso correcto y adecuado de este tipo de texto, el estudiante extranjero debe conocer cómo dirigirse a su profesor: registro, formalidades, cortesía (Yus, 2001); de manera que consiga plasmar en un breve párrafo sus preguntas, dudas, comentarios, sin que las dificultades que pueda tener al expresarse hagan que pierda el objetivo del mensaje. Por tanto, se incluyen varias prácticas que permiten al alumno familiarizarse con él y conocer la terminología específica (dirección de correo, arroba, asunto, punto y dominio, página web, portal, etc.). Entre ellas están:  Solicitar una tutoría presencial.  Remitir una práctica adjunta.  Comunicar una ausencia.  Solicitar información relativa al contenido de la clase. Los estudiantes los envían y posteriormente reciben la corrección de estos mediante otro email, de manera que puedan almacenarlos en una carpeta y poderlos consultar al escribir un mensaje con idéntico contenido a cualquiera de sus profesores. Posteriormente, ya en clase, se comentan los errores más repetidos, se dan ejemplos de textos similares y se practica el vocabulario necesario. Asimismo, los emails los leen los propios alumnos en voz alta y se pregunta a los demás acerca de la adecuación del mensaje mientras se hace una corrección colectiva. Con la entrada en nuestras universidades de los nuevos títulos de grado, la evaluación de los contenidos de las asignaturas ha cambiado radicalmente. Si bien antes el examen contaba un 90% o un 100% de la nota final, hoy en día no puede superar el 50% del total. Esto implica que el estudiante debe cubrir el otro 50% restante entre: asistencia, actividades individuales (participación en foros en campus virtual, ejercicios de clase, presentaciones en clase, redacción de reseñas, portfolios, trabajo final, etc.), actividades en grupo (prácticas, trabajos guiados, etc.). Debido a esto, se incorpora en el curso de EA la presentación PPT como actividad de clase para el segundo módulo del curso. Sanz Álava (2007:135) describe los rasgos lingüísticos

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y funcionales de las diapositivas de power point y las define como “texto escrito para ser comentado por el ponente y leído por el receptor en el caso de un congreso, conferencia, lección magistral, presentación de una empresa, etc.; y su objetivo más importante es servir de hilo conductor durante la exposición”. Los estudiantes preparan las presentaciones en clase, de forma individual o por grupos si todos ellos cursan las mismas asignaturas o estudios. Esto permite que interactúen, lleguen a un acuerdo sobre la estructura y contenidos, y cuenten con la ayuda del profesor en todo momento. Una vez finalizadas las ensayan ante sus compañeros quienes les ayudan a corregir el primer borrador de las mismas. A continuación, las realizan como lo harían en una de sus clases. Los demás compañeros vuelven a participar en la corrección, pero esta vez tienen en cuenta “el decálogo de la PPT” que ellos mismos han creado a partir de lo que consideran importante al realizar y exponer una PPT. A saber: 1. Vocalizar. 2. Hablar a un ritmo adecuado. 3. Evitar las muletillas. • Hacer pausas y respirar. 4. Conservar el estilo propio. 5. Usar el registro adecuado. 6. Mostrar seguridad. • Mirar a los demás. • Conocer perfectamente el contenido. 7. Captar la atención de los oyentes. • Contacto visual. • Evitar la monotonía en el tono de voz. • Formular preguntas. 8. Controlar la expresión corporal. 9. Vestir adecuadamente.

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10. Ser respetuoso: apagar el móvil, no comer chicle, no dar la espalda, etc. El tercer módulo del curso está orientado a que el alumno aprenda a redactar un trabajo académico y, especialmente, a que sepa organizar la información de cara a los exámenes de las asignaturas que ha elegido (Paltridge, 2009). Analizando la parte de expresión escrita del cuestionario de necesidades, centrada en el discurso académico escrito (Parodi, 2010; Perea Siller, 2013), resulta evidente que muchos de los alumnos no están acostumbrados a los exámenes de desarrollo, pues en sus sistemas universitarios utilizan el examen tipo test o de elección múltiple. Esto les planteaba una gran dificultad debido a que para lograr obtener los contenidos de la asignatura debían: leer los materiales y bibliografía, entender las explicaciones de sus profesores, tomar apuntes y escribir resúmenes. Además, necesitan prepararse para redactar varias horas, por lo que han de conocer: cómo organizar la información a través de marcadores discursivos, exponer y argumentar en español; haciéndolo sin cometer las faltas que el baremo de la UA aplica a cualquier estudiante en los trabajos y pruebas escritas. Los recursos online representan una herramienta esencial para dotar al alumno de las destrezas necesarias para la realización de este tipo de tareas. A continuación, se muestran algunos de los usados en el tercer módulo:  Recursos lexicográficos y terminológicos.  Recursos textuales.  Conjugadores online.  Páginas web con normas y actividades para mejorar la ortografía.  Páginas web de imágenes y fotografías.  Páginas de vídeo. A modo de ejemplo, el portal de la Real Academia Española, permite al alumno acceder a varios diccionarios (de la lengua, esencial, panhispánico, histórico), consultar bancos de datos textuales (CREA y CORDE) y conjugar verbos. Gracias a estos recursos, el alumno asimila más fácilmente conceptos propios de sus materias, reconoce diferentes tipos de texto, aprende vocabulario específico y elabora glosarios que usará en sus clases durante en la toma de apuntes y actividades.

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Conclusiones Tras las cinco ediciones del curso estas son las conclusiones a las que se ha llegado: La incorporación del correo electrónico como práctica de clase mejora no solo la expresión escrita, sino la comprensión lectora y el uso de diferentes registros. La realización de esta actividad resulta motivadora para los alumnos ya que se trata de la redacción de textos cortos con una finalidad muy concreta. Recibir una respuesta rápida con la corrección, les permite mejorar los sucesivos textos y ser conscientes de cuáles son sus necesidades léxicas concretas. El uso de las presentaciones en clase y la corrección colectiva de las mismas, ayuda a reforzar la expresión oral de los alumnos y enriquece su vocabulario. Resulta una actividad estimulante ya que en ningún momento se limita la creatividad de estos, todo lo contrario, se les anima a realizar búsquedas de imágenes, vídeos, contenidos que no solo resulten de su interés, sino que atraigan la atención de los compañeros que desconocen su campo de estudio. Expresar su opinión acerca del trabajo de otros, les enseña a argumentar, igualmente cuando justifican su elección y el porqué de su trabajo. El uso de recursos online durante las clases dinamiza los ejercicios y actividades de aula y eleva el nivel de los textos. Asimismo, consiguen despertar el interés de los alumnos que visitan más asiduamente estas páginas con contenido exclusivamente en español. Por tanto, las ventajas en el uso de las TIC en los cursos de EA son evidentes y se pueden resumir en: favorecen la interacción alumno-profesor y alumno-alumno, las correcciones son rápidas y se conservan en formato online y ayudan a fomentar el trabajo en equipo. En cuanto a los inconvenientes encontrados, resulta indispensable tener acceso a aulas multimedia o que los estudiantes dispongan y usen sus propios portátiles conectados al WIFI del campus. Debido a la cantidad de información en Internet, debemos estar atentos a los contenidos a los que tienen acceso y prevenirles sobre el riesgo de infoxicación. También resulta fundamental el compromiso de los estudiantes en la dinámica de la clase, ya que el uso de Internet debe responder a un fin académico y no particular. Por último, el volumen de documentos que corregir y devolver a los alumnos aumenta en función del mayor uso que estos hagan de las TIC en clase.

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Bibliografía Bartolomé, A. R. (1999). Nuevas tecnologías en el aula. Guía de supervivencia. Barcelona: Graó. López Alonso, C. & A. Seré (2003). Nuevos géneros discursivos: los textos electrónicos. Madrid: Biblioteca Nueva. Llamas Sáiz, C., C. Martínez Pasamar y C. Tabernero Sala (2012). La comunicación académica y profesional: usos, técnicas y estilo. Cizur Menor (Navarra): Thomson Reuters-Aranzadi. Paltridge, B. (2009). Teaching academic writing: an introduction for teachers of second language writers. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Parodi, G. (2010). Academic and professional discourse genres in Spanish, Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Perea Siller, F. (coord.) (2013). Comunicar en la Universidad. Descripción y metodología de los géneros académicos, Córdoba: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Córdoba (Formato: CD) Sanz Álava, I. (2007). El Español Profesional y Académico en el aula universitaria: El discurso oral y escrito, Valencia: Tirant Lo Blanch. Shepherd, M. & C. Watters (1998). “The Evolution of Cybergenres”, in Sprague Jr., R. (ed.). Proceedings of the 30th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 97-109. Los Alamitos, CA: IEEEE- Computer Society. Yus, F. (2001). Ciberpragmática. Barcelona: Ariel Lingüística.

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On-line thematic guides in Applied Linguistics and their role in promoting students’ research article genre awareness Teresa Morell Moll Universitat d’Alacant, Departament de Filologia Anglesa AcqUA research group

Abstract Students in post graduate degrees need to be made aware of the academic genres of the particular discourse community they wish to enter. This genre awareness may be facilitated by the use of an on-line thematic guide, which brings together many resources of a particular field. The aim of this paper is to illustrate how the thematic guides of the Acquisition and Learning Second Languages research group of the University of Alicante (AcqUA), one in Spanish and the other in English, were used to build research article genre knowledge of the students of a Master in Spanish and English as Second and Foreign Languages. The study includes a description of the context, the thematic guides, the genre based tasks and the questionnaires given to the students before using the guides and after carrying out the tasks. The results of the survey indicate that the AcqUA thematic guides along with genre-based tasks can be considered useful tools for developing novice investigators research article genre knowledge.

Key Words: ICT, on-line thematic guides, research articles, genre awareness

Guías temáticas en Lingüística Aplicada y la concienciación del género del artículo de investigación Los alumnos de posgrado necesitan concienciarse de los géneros académicos para participar en el discurso de la comunidad a la cual quieran pertenecer. Esta concienciación puede ser fomentada por el uso de guías temáticas que recogen muchos recursos del área específica de estudio. El propósito de este trabajo es ilustrar cómo las guías temáticas en inglés y en español del grupo de investigación Adquisición y aprendizaje de segundas lenguas de la Universidad de Alicante (Acqua) se utilizaron para desarrollar el conocimiento del género del artículo de investigación de los alumnos del Máster en Español e Inglés como Segundas Lenguas

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y Lenguas Extranjeras. El estudio incluye una descripción del contexto, de las tareas basadas en género y de los cuestionarios. Los resultados de la encuesta indican que las guías temáticas Acqua con las tareas basadas en género pueden considerarse como herramientas útiles para el desarrollo del conocimiento del género del artículo de investigación. Palabras clave: TIC’s, guías temáticas, artículo de investigación, concienciación de género

Introduction Graduate students, who are novice researchers often, claim that the research process is confusing and frustrating, despite the convenience, relative ease, or ubiquity of the Internet (Head & Eisenberg, 2009). The confusion may be due to the overwhelming amount of information that students have easy access to and the frustration may be caused by lack of clarity in assigned research tasks. Thus, to help students we need to devise tools and tasks that will, at least, begin to demystify the research process and facilitate their task performance. This demystification has much to do with the organization of accessible information, and raising students’ genre awareness. In this paper, I will present what was done in an Applied Linguistics graduate course for Spanish and English as Second and Foreign Languages to guide the students’ access to relevant on-line material and to enable them to build their research article genre knowledge. Accessing scholarly information is one of the most important tasks for researchers, regardless of their field of study. Therefore, graduate students, or novice researchers, need not only to be introduced to the specific academic literature, but also trained in how to go about finding it. When thinking about where and how to locate scholarly work, the Web of Knowledge or the SciVerse Scopus databases will most likely come to the mind of expert researchers. However for beginners, the vast amount of information found in these catalogues could be intimidating. Thus, providing students with a more limited and discipline specific directory may be more appropriate. An example of an information source for a given subject is a thematic guide, that is, a selection of information resources of a particular field of study used by students, teachers and researchers of a university. These thematic guides usually include links to the university library catalogue, databases, specialized electronic journals and a range of field specific web resources, such as research associations and/or centers, as well as web pages and blogs with useful on-line material for the particular teaching and research community. Besides allowing students to have a more focused access to the information resources of a particular field,

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thematic guides provide them with a genre rich environment, that is the specific texts or ‘socially recognized ways of using language’ within a discipline. Among the genres found in thematic guides are specialized websites, blogs, books, electronic journals and articles. Although the guides can be considered plentiful in so far as the variety of genres they contain, they will only qualify as useful resources for students, if teachers involve them in effective tasks. Fortunately for teachers, in the past two decades there has been a growing body of research on genre pedagogy, especially in the field of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) (Tardy, 2006). Ever since John Swales published his ground-breaking Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings (1990) there has been a proliferation of studies focusing on the teaching or learning of genres for academic purposes. Work by scholars such as Swales (1990; 2004), Hyland (2007) and Tardy (2009) stresses the importance of fostering genre learning or genre pedagogy and training graduate students to be genre or discourse analysts. Tardy (2009) encourages teachers to build a genre rich environment in which students have access to a range of strategies and resources. Swales & Feak (2004) provide pedagogical tasks that enhance learners’ awareness of the macrostructure, the microstructure, and the rhetorical moves found within written academic research genres. In addition, work has been done on the description of graduate-level genre-based academic writing courses (e.g., Hyland 2007; Cheng 2006, 2011; Yayli 2011; Breeze, 2012; Kuteeva, 2013). In general, the cited specialists in genre pedagogy claim that the more exposure investigators have to specialized genres, such as the research article, the more they will understand how they are used and constructed within specific discourse communities. On the basis of the aforementioned literature, in this study I set out to explore how thematic guides and genre based tasks can be used to foster graduate students’ research article genre awareness. The description of the context, the thematic guides and tasks, is followed by the questionnaires the students were given to determine if and how the resource tools along with the tasks could be considered useful for their genre knowledge building.

The Study: Context, thematic guides, tasks and survey This study was carried out in a bilingual master’s program for Spanish and English as Second or Foreign Languages at the University of Alicante. In 2006 this postgraduate was established as a professional degree to train teachers in Spanish and English. However, since 2010 it is both a professional and research based Master’s program within the European Higher Education Area, and thus the broad-range objective is not only to train professionals in teaching both languages, but also in doing research. To fulfil the requirements

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of the master’s program, besides taking courses and practicing teaching, students must carry out a master’s thesis. Once they have finished they may go on to initiate their PhD. Therefore, they must be able to carry out and report on research in Spanish and English, and consequently, our goal is to explore how they can be better prepared to do so. Consequently, we set out to provide the master’s students of the Applied Linguistics course with a genre rich environment by presenting them with two thematic guides, each dealing with the teaching and learning of second/foreign languages - one in Spanish and the other in English, found within the University of Alicante library web-page. These resource guides (AcqUA español como lengua extranjera & AcqUA teaching English) allow students to carry out specific catalogue searches within the library archives, access the most prestigious editorials, bookshops, e-books, associations, research centres, other resource guides, on-line language teaching resources, electronic journals, doctoral thesis, data bases, free access academic search engines and blogs, all within the field of Applied Linguistics in the teaching and learning of Spanish and English L2/FL. Once the master’s students had become familiar with the resource tools, they were to focus on the electronic journals section to learn about some of the international journals in Applied Linguistics in Spanish (e.g., MarcoELE, RedELE, Estudios de Lingüística Aplicada, etc.) and in English (e.g., Journal of Second Language Writing, Language Learning, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, System, etc.). Subsequently, they were to choose one research article (henceforth-RA) from one of the international journals and to use it as an object of analysis. For this analysis, the students were to read Swales & Feak (2004), and to have participated in an interactive lecture using a sample research article and an explanatory PowerPoint about the macro and microstructures of research articles in Applied Linguistics. In the interactive lecture the participants were asked to work in pairs to deduce the macrostructure, i.e., the main parts of an Applied Linguistics research article (e.g., IMRD), to become more aware of the possible moves (e.g., Swale’s CARS -Create a Research Space- for the Introduction section) found within each of the parts, and the microstructure or academic language used (i.e., verb tenses, passive voice, discourse markers, citations, hedging, etc.). Each student was then asked to analyze the RA of their choice and to hand in a copy of their discourse analysis. Then, they were asked to prepare for the main task of the course by forming groups of 3-5 students to design and carry out research on one of the following broad categories, which reflect the main objectives of the subject (i.e, becoming aware of second language learning and teaching, and its research) a) How is Spanish learnt or taught as a second (L2) or foreign language (FL) in specific educational

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contexts? b) How is English learnt or taught as a L2 or FL in specific educational contexts? In each case, they were to decide as a group which aspect of learning or teaching (e.g., motivation, learning styles, methodology, phonetics, grammar, use of ICT, etc.) they would like to investigate and to choose the instructional contexts of study (e.g., primary schools, secondary schools, university, official school of languages or private academies). Those students, who had chosen a research article to analyze in English, had to do the group project in Spanish, and vice versa. In addition, the groups who were working on “How is Spanish learnt or taught?” were to meet with the Spanish professor, whereas those doing “How is English learnt or taught?” were to meet with the English professor to discuss what they planned to do (i.e., research questions, outline of study) and to work on an observation schedule grid or a questionnaire that they would distribute to either the teachers or students of the educational contexts, depending on their object of study. Once they had carried out the research they were to write it up as a research article following through with the Swalesian IMRD structure. Two questionnaires were administered to the participants of the Applied Linguistics course in the 2011-12 and the 2012-2013 academic years. The purpose of the first questionnaire, which was distributed and responded to before the aforementioned tasks were initiated, was to determine the students’ previous experience and familiarity with the research article genre. The goal of the second questionnaire, which was completed at the end of the course, was to gather feedback on the students’ experience using the thematic guides, carrying out the tasks, as well as their impressions on their research article genre knowledge development. Each of the questionnaires consisted of a series of open questions, so as not to limit the pupils’ answers and to allow them a certain degree of freedom in expressing their thoughts.

Results and Discussion The survey was responded to by 43 of the 66 participants of the two academic years, which represents 65’1% of the students. The responses to the questions of both academic years led to the following findings: a) Students’ previous knowledge of RAs - 24 out of 43 students had never read a research article prior to this course. The remaining 19 had read at least one RA for previous undergraduate degrees, but were not aware of their structure and had never carried out a discourse analysis. Consequently,

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many claimed to have difficulty understanding them before having done this task.

b) Ease or difficulty in finding or choosing an article to analyze - 22 out of 43 had had no problems in locating or selecting one, but 19 had been indecisive on which to choose and had had difficulty determining whether the articles were, in fact, RAs. Those who had had problems identifying an RA, claimed to have learned from the experience since they had realized, through the instructors’ guidance, that international journals in Applied Linguistics also publish review articles, and other papers that do not necessarily conform to the Swalesian IMRD structure.

c) Usefulness of the AcqUA thematic guides - the large majority (40 out of 43) claimed that the guides were user-friendly and helpful in narrowing the scope of their search since they put together a series of relevant Applied Linguistics journals. A few also indicated that the guides had been helpful for their work in other subjects of the master. The single drawback mentioned was that some of the journals were not open access, and therefore could be used only on the university campus.

d) Benefits of the RA analysis on their own papers- All students highly valued the task of analyzing an RA and many claimed that it had helped them in various ways. Their positive feedback on the task relates to the following aspects: locating articles, becoming aware of the diverse types of articles, designing and structuring their own papers, imitating writing styles, and enhancing their own critical analysis. As a consequence, they stated that they felt more confident to write not only their group project, but also their final master’s thesis.

e) Impressions of RA genre knowledge development – Overall the students believed they had progressed in building their RA genre awareness, which they expressed in various ways. The following student’s quote serves as an example: Before using the AcqUA thematic guide and doing the projects for this subject, I had no idea of what a research article was all about. Now I think I am good at finding them and

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even realizing how they are structured. I also know how to cite and some of the expressions that are commonly used, but when it comes to writing my own I still have a lot to learn. This descriptive survey study on the use of thematic guides and their role in promoting research article awareness, although limited, provides some indications as to the benefits of exposing students to field specific resource tools and to tasks with a genre-based approach. Much like in Tardy (2009), the enriched genre environment allowed students to become more aware of the structural and linguistic aspects used to report on research. Consequently, thematic guides, enhanced by genre-based tasks, can be considered useful instruments to help students focus on the distinctive use of language for academic purposes and for building their genre knowledge.

References Breeze, R. (2012). Rethinking academic writing pedagogy for the European university. Amsterdam: Rodopi. Cheng, A. (2006). “Understanding learners and learning in ESP genre-based writing instruction”. English for Specific Purposes 25: 76-89. Head, A. & Eisenberg, M. (2009) “What today’s college students say about conducting research in the digital age. Project Information Literacy Progress Report.” URL: http://projectinfolit.org/pdfs/PIL_ProgressReport_2_2009.pdf (9/10/13) Hyland, K. (2007). “Genre pedagogy: Language, literacy and L2 writing instruction”. Journal of Second Language Writing, 16: 148-164. Kuteeva, M. (2013). “Graduate learners’ approaches to genre-analysis tasks: Variations across and within four disciplines”. English for Specific Purposes 32, 2: 84-96 Swales, J. (1990). Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Swales, J. (2004). Research Genres: Explorations and Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Swales, J. & Feak, C, (2000). English in today´s research world: A writing guide. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

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Swales, J. & Feak, C. (2004), Academic Writing for Graduate Students. 2nd Edit, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. Tardy, C. (2006). “Researching first and second language genre learning: A comparative review and a look ahead”. Journal of Second Language Writing. 15: 79-101. Tardy, C. (2009). Building Genre Knowledge: Writing L2. Indiana: Parlor Press. Yayli, D. (2011). “From genre-awareness to cross-genre awareness: A study in an EFL context”. Journal of English for Academic Purposes 10: 121-129.

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La utilización de las TIC en el aula de inglés técnico marítimo: 15 años después del proyecto MARCOM Rosa Mary De la Campa Portela Universidad de A Coruña Ana Bocanegra Valle Universidad de Cádiz

Resumen Este artículo establece los cambios y mejoras observados en la última década sobre los métodos, metodologías, herramientas y materiales usados para la enseñanza de inglés marítimo mediante la comparación de los resultados obtenidos en el proyecto MARCOM, y los resultados obtenidos en una encuesta realizada a profesores de inglés marítimo. Las mejoras introducidas en la docencia de esta materia reflejan el esfuerzo que la comunidad marítima ha realizado para elevar la competencia comunicativa de sus actores y el peso que las instituciones de formación marítima otorgan hoy en día a este factor sin duda vital para el mantenimiento de la seguridad en el ámbito marítimo.

Palabras clave: comunicaciones marítimas, seguridad, formación, tecnología.

The use of TIC’s for the teaching of Maritime English: 15 years after the MARCOM Project Abstract This paper explores the changes and improvement that have taken place in the past decade regarding the methods, methodologies, tools and materials used for the teaching of maritime English. Results obtained fifteen years ago with the development of the European MARCOM Project have been collated with those from a questionnaire delivered among Maritime English lecturers around the world. The improvements brought about in the teaching of maritime English courses mirror the efforts made by stakeholders (lecturers, professionals and maritime institutions) to upgrade the

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English language communicative competence of graduates and post-graduates in safeguarding life at sea. Key Words: maritime communications, safety, training, technology.

1. Introducción En su preocupación por la mejora del proceso enseñanza/aprendizaje de inglés marítimo comenzó en 1997 el desarrollo del proyecto MARCOM, financiado por la Unión Europea (European Commission, 1999), con el objetivo general de mejorar las comunicaciones entre las tripulaciones multilingües y multiculturales: “Its main objective is to recommend improvements in communications skills on the bridge” (European Commission, 1999: 7). Asimismo, otra de las metas de este proyecto consistía en evaluar los entonces actuales estándares de formación en destrezas comunicativas en los centros de formación marítima, y desarrollar un programa docente piloto que respondiese a la reglamentación y pensamiento del momento. El objeto del presente artículo será establecer los cambios y mejoras observadas desde entonces sobre los métodos, metodologías, herramientas y materiales usados para la enseñanza de inglés marítimo, poniendo especial énfasis en los avances realizados con relación al uso de las nuevas tecnologías de la información y la comunicación como herramientas de apoyo a la docencia de esta materia. Para ello comparamos los resultados obtenidos en la encuesta sobre herramientas y metodologías docentes publicada en el informe final del proyecto MARCOM con los resultados obtenidos en una encuesta realizada a profesores de esta materia en la actualidad.

2. Materiales y métodos Siendo el objetivo principal del presente estudio la comparación entre los materiales y métodos utilizados para la enseñanza de la lengua inglesa en centros de formación marítima en la época en que se desarrolló el proyecto MARCOM, y los materiales y métodos utilizados en la actualidad para la realización de dicha enseñanza, se han utilizado, los siguientes elementos: 1) Los resultados publicados en el informe final del proyecto MARCOM, relativos a una encuesta

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cumplimentada por profesores de inglés marítimo a nivel internacional, a la que respondieron 161 docentes, y en la que se recogen, entre otros, datos sobre tamaño de las clases, experiencia marítima de los profesores de inglés, contenido de la clase de inglés, materiales utilizados, herramientas de enseñanza disponibles, métodos de enseñanza, uso de herramientas tecnológicas para la enseñanza de lenguas, y programas informáticos específicos en uso. 2) Los resultados obtenidos de una encuesta realizada en colaboración entre las Universidades de A Coruña y Cádiz (a la que llamaremos a partir de aquí encuesta UCC/UCA), realizada a través de correo electrónico entre profesores de inglés marítimo de todo el mundo, con una participación final de 79 docentes. Dicha encuesta fue diseñada, distribuida, recogida y sus datos tratados y analizados desde estas dos universidades españolas. Las preguntas contenidas en la misma siguen un patrón similar al utilizado en su día para el proyecto MARCOM, de manera que las cuestiones planteadas contienen al menos el mismo número de preguntas que las planteadas en el proyecto MARCOM; en algunos casos contienen cuestiones más detalladas, como las referentes a materiales utilizados para la docencia, software de enseñanza y evaluación, y uso de las nuevas tecnologías. Asimismo esta encuesta ha permitido establecer una graduación más detallada en el uso de materiales, disponibilidad de herramientas y preferencias metodológicas.

3. Discusión Una vez analizados los datos de ambas encuestas, enfrentamos su contenido obteniendo los resultados detallados a continuación. Para un mejor seguimiento de dicha comparativa, dividimos las cuestiones planteadas en los siguientes apartados: 1. Identificación del profesor, la institución y los estudiantes 2. Contenidos de la clase de inglés 3. Tipos de herramientas de enseñanza 4. Métodos de enseñanza

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5. Materiales usados

3.1. Identificación del profesor y la institución. Características del grupo de alumnos En el proyecto MARCOM participaron profesores de todo el mundo, principalmente de Europa (n=62) y de Asia (n=83), mientras no se obtuvo una representación significativa de docentes de Sudamérica, África y Oceanía. Similares datos se obtuvieron en la encuesta de las universidades españolas: Europa y Asia fueron los continentes con mayor participación (n=54 y n=18 respectivamente), mientras que las respuestas de los demás continentes no se consideran significativas de forma aislada. En cuanto a la identificación del docente, el dato comparable entre ambos estudios hace referencia a la experiencia en el sector marítimo, de tal forma que el 18% de los docentes participantes en el proyecto MARCOM poseían experiencia marítima, mientras en el cuestionario UCC/UCA el 39% de los participantes poseen tal experiencia. Observamos pues un aumento notable en la formación marítima de los docentes de esta materia. La encuesta UCC/UCA ofrece además un dato interesante sobre la experiencia docente de los participantes: si bien el 55 % de los docentes declara tener más de 10 años de experiencia como profesores de lenguas, sólo el 40% se dedica a la docencia de inglés marítimo desde hace más de 10 años. Con relación a las características del aula, los profesores encuestados en el proyecto MARCOM, manejan clases de 23 alumnos de media, mientras que la media de alumnos por clase de la encuesta UCC/UCA es de 20 alumnos. Esta segunda encuesta nos ofrece también datos sobre el nivel académico de los estudiantes, siendo el nivel pre-grado el manejado por el 76% de los encuestados.

3.2. Contenidos en la clase de inglés marítimo La Tabla 1 nos muestra los datos obtenidos con relación al contenido de las clases de inglés en ambos cuestionarios. Por un lado, los resultados del proyecto MARCOM muestran que si bien todas las destrezas son practicadas en clase, es la destreza lectora la más practicada, seguida por la destreza oral. También puede observarse que en aquel momento existía una gran diferencia en los porcentajes entre Europa y Asia en la práctica de las destrezas oral y escrita, diferencia que prácticamente no se observa en la actualidad.

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Así pues, la encuesta UCC/UCA muestra que las cuatro destrezas son practicadas por casi la totalidad de los docentes en mayor o menor medida, siendo la destreza de comprensión oral la más practicada en el aula.

DESTREZAS

Total

Total

Europa

Asia

Europa

Asia

Comprensión

MARCOM 89.4

UCC/UCA 98

MARCOM 93.3

MARCOM 70.7

UCC/UCA -

UCC/UCA -

lectora Expresión oral Comprensión

73.5 69.0

99 100

84.4 65.9

35.0 65.0

89 -

95 -

oral Expresión escrita

60.2

95

71.1

30.0

74

72

Tabla 1. Contenido de las clases de inglés marítimo.

Estos datos muestran pues una mejora en la variedad de destrezas enseñadas en las aulas de inglés marítimo, principalmente en la enseñanza de destrezas de comprensión oral y expresión escrita por parte de los docentes de esta materia en instituciones asiáticas.

3.3. Tipos de herramientas de ayuda a la docencia En la Tabla 2 podemos ver la comparativa entre los datos obtenidos en el proyecto MARCOM sobre la disponibilidad de herramientas de ayuda a la docencia en los centros de formación marítima, y los resultados obtenidos en la encuesta UCC/UCA. De esta tabla cabe destacar el descenso en la disponibilidad de herramientas denominadas en el propio proyecto MARCOM como “old technologies”, en referencia a “traditional teaching tools such as language laboratories based in audio tapes, commercial audio tapes, audio tapes recorders” (European Commission, 1999: 31) entre las que podemos incluir el proyector de diapositivas, y el aumento en la disponibilidad de “new technologies” principalmente con relación a “recently introduced technologies which are still undergoing rapid development such as personal computers, the World Wide Web, and CD- Roms” (European Commission, 1999: 31) de forma que Internet ha pasado a estar disponible de un 53% a un 87%, los ordenadores para el uso en el aula se elevan de 43.5% a un 65%, y CD-ROM pasa de 39.1% al 97%. Por otra parte, y tal y como se puede observar en la Tabla 2, el 14% de los participantes en la encuesta UCC/

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UCA ha declarado disponer de otras herramientas tecnológicamente avanzadas tales como proyectores para PC, pizarras digitales, portátiles, simuladores de radionavegación y control de tráfico marítimo, radios VHF y proyectores LCD.

HERRAMIENTAS DOCENTES Vídeo  Grabador de casete Retroproyector Proyector de diapositivas Simulador GMDSS Laboratorio de informática Instalaciones para auto-aprendizaje Internet Laboratorio de idiomas Ordenadores para uso en el aula CD-ROM 

Proyecto

Encuesta

MARCOM 92.5 90.6 90.4 84.0 69.6 66.0 62.8 57.8 52.8 43.5 39.1

UCC/UCA 96.2 84.8 83.5 50.6 62.0 83.5 41.8 87.3 64.6 64.6 97.5

Tabla 2. Herramientas de ayuda a la enseñanza/aprendizaje

Cabe también destacar, que la encuesta UCC/UCA nos ofrece datos sobre el uso de estas herramientas en el aula de inglés marítimo. De los datos obtenidos subrayamos que, si bien los porcentajes de simuladores disponibles son bastante elevados ya que el 62% dispone de simulador GMDSS, el 76% posee simulador de navegación y el 56% dispone de simulador de máquinas, esta herramienta parece no ser muy utilizada por los docentes de esta materia, pues sólo el 29% utiliza el simulador GMDSS como herramienta de apoyo, el 38% utiliza el simulador de navegación y el simulador de máquinas es utilizado escasamente por el 17%.

3.4. Métodos de enseñanza Con relación a los métodos de enseñanza, la pizarra tradicional y pizarra blanca siguen siendo los más utilizados junto con los grupos de trabajo. Ahora bien, si en la época del proyecto MARCOM las clases magistrales y la clases de traducción se encontraban entre los métodos más utilizados, hoy en día, los resultados de la encuesta UCC, nos indican que otros métodos como el role playing y la enseñanza individual o personalizada han ganado bastante terreno, tal como podemos ver en la Tabla 3. También métodos basadas en el uso de las nuevas tecnologías han experimentado un gran empuje, tales como el uso de ordenadores

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para actividades de lenguas y procesamiento de textos. La encuesta UCC/UCA nos muestra, asimismo, que hoy en día los docentes de inglés marítimo ponen a disposición del alumno gran variedad de métodos docentes contribuyendo de esta forma al enriquecimiento del proceso enseñanza/aprendizaje.

METODOS DOCENTES Pizarra tradicional/pizarra blanca Clases magistrales Traducción Grupos de trabajo Laboratorios de idiomas Role playing Enseñanza personalizada Reuniones profesor-estudiantes Demostraciones visuales Simulaciones Procesamiento de texto con ordenadores Peer tutoring Actividades de lenguas con ordenadores

Proyecto

Encuesta

MARCOM 86.5 62.2 55.2 54.3 42.4 38.6 36.5 31.7 25.9 19.1 13.3 11.6 7.0

UCC/UCA 99.0 78.0 79.0 98.0 74.0 96.0 96.0 73.0 85.0 70.0 65.0 73.0 83.0

Tabla 3. Métodos de enseñanza.

Cabe finalmente señalar que si bien el proyecto MARCOM indicaba que ninguno de los docentes asiáticos decía utilizar la simulación como método docente, y ninguno de los docentes europeos decía utilizar los ordenadores para actividades lingüísticas, los resultados de la encuesta UCC/UCA muestran un gran cambio en estos puntos, indicando que un 72% de los docentes asiáticos utiliza la simulación en la actualidad, y un 89% de los docentes europeos utiliza ordenadores para actividades de lenguas en nuestros días.

3.5. Materiales utilizados Libros de texto de inglés marítimo y materiales de diseño propio eran los materiales más utilizados por los docentes participantes en el proyecto MARCOM. Si bien los materiales de diseño propio siguen siendo ampliamente utilizados hoy en día por un 93% de los docentes participantes en la encuesta UCC/UCA, los artículos científicos y divulgativos de naturaleza marítima así como los documentos de la Organización Marítima Internacional (OMI) han ganado terreno a los libros de texto de inglés marítimo, pasando a ser utilizados por un 98% de los docentes.

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MATERIALES Libros de texto de inglés marítimo Libros de actividades Artículos marítimos/documentos OMI Libros de texto de gramática Materiales de formación en CD-ROM Materiales de diseño propio

Proyecto

Encuesta

MARCOM 79.3 53.7 43.7 39.8 7.8 -

UCC/UCA 96.0 78.0 98.0 82.0 85.0 93.0

Tabla 4. Materiales utilizados en el aula de inglés marítimo.

Los materiales de formación en CD-ROM han experimentado también un gran auge en cuanto a su uso, ya que pasan de ser utilizados de un 7.8% a un 85% de los docentes. Al igual que en el caso de los métodos utilizados, parece que hoy en día los docentes de inglés marítimo recurren a una mayor variedad de materiales para la impartición de sus clases, tal como se muestra en la Tabla 4. En una de las secciones del cuestionario del proyecto MARCOM se pedía a los profesores de inglés marítimo que identificaran algún material en CD-ROM o software en uso para la docencia de esta materia, a la que la mayoría de los encuestados respondió que no conocía ninguno. En la encuesta UCC/UCA, por su parte, se pasó a los docentes unas listas con materiales en CD-ROM, programas informáticos y recursos en Internet para la enseñanza de inglés marítimo, así como herramientas de evaluación, con el fin de obtener datos sobre el conocimiento de este tipo de materiales y su uso en el aula. Entre los materiales en CD más utilizados encontramos Marlins Study Pack 1 y 2, The international maritime language programme y Standard Marine Communication Phrases on CD-ROM, y entre los menos conocidos se encuentran Maritime English y Maritime Communications de Maritime Education Sweden AB y Safe sailing. Con relación a los programas informáticos y recursos de Internet disponibles, MarEng y Seagull SMCP Tools son los más utilizados, mientras TUMSAT Maritime English Initiative y SECMA Tool son los menos conocidos. En cuanto a las herramientas de evaluación Marlins Study Pack 1: Progress Test e ISF Marlins Test son los más utilizados, y los menos conocidos son Maritime English test of BES y MARTEL. Finalmente señalar que el 92% de los docentes utilizan Internet para sus actividades docentes, el 75% utilizan el correo electrónico, y el 82% los diccionarios en línea. Menos utilizados son herramientas como el foro, con un 35% de los docentes, y los diccionarios electrónicos, con un 57% de usuarios.

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4. Conclusiones La preocupación por la mejora de las habilidades lingüísticas de los marinos ha ido en aumento en los últimos años a nivel internacional, lo que se ha traducido en una mejora tanto de la reglamentación a favor del uso de la lengua inglesa como lengua común de comunicación en este ámbito, como de los materiales, metodologías y técnicas puestas al servicio de la formación de marinos en dicha materia. Si bien los métodos y materiales más tradicionales no han perdido terreno en su uso en las aulas, son las nuevas tecnologías las que han experimentado un auge importantísimo en la última década, como herramientas de apoyo y mejora del proceso enseñanza/aprendizaje de inglés marítimo. Así por ejemplo, el uso de ordenadores en el aula, Internet, el correo electrónico, y la proliferación de materiales en formato CDROM y programas informáticos específicos para la enseñanza y evaluación de las competencias lingüísticas, han pasado de ser utilizados de forma esporádica a convertirse en herramientas docentes fundamentales. Los datos aportados por la encuesta UCC/UCA nos indican además el enriquecimiento experimentado en materiales y métodos utilizados en el aula, ya que parece que actualmente no existe una preferencia clara en la utilización de materiales y métodos tradicionales o modernos, sino que todos ellos son puestos a disposición del alumno con el fin último de aumentar las oportunidades de desarrollo de las distintas competencias lingüísticas. Asimismo, los datos de estas encuestas nos muestran un aumento en el uso de metodologías que mejoran la competencia comunicativa del alumno, tales como los juegos de rol (role playing) y las simulaciones, y el uso de materiales o textos “auténticos” como los artículos científicos o de carácter divulgativo, así como los documentos producidos en el seno de la OMI, que acercan al alumno a la realidad de su futuro desempeño laboral. Podemos afirmar, por lo tanto, que la comparación de los resultados obtenidos en las encuestas a docentes realizadas con apenas 15 años de diferencia nos permite observar los cambios y mejoras introducidas en la docencia de inglés marítimo y nos dan una idea del esfuerzo que la comunidad marítima ha realizado por elevar la competencia comunicativa de sus actores así como del peso que las instituciones de formación marítima otorgan hoy en día al dominio de inglés marítimo como factor sin duda vital para el mantenimiento de la seguridad en el ámbito profesional.

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Referencias European Commission (1999). The MARCOM Project. Final Report. The Impact of Multicultural and Multilingual Crews on MARitime COMmunication. URL: http://www.transport-research.info/ Upload/Documents/200310/marcom.pdf [12/06/13]

VIII. COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS AND LANGUAGES FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES / LINGÜÍSTICA COGNITIVA Y LENGUAS PARA FINES ESPECÍFICICOS

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The workplace use of English by Public Relations practitioners in Poland: a survey Emilia Wąsikiewicz-Firlej, PhD Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland

Abstract Since English is a widely accepted lingua franca of international business and commerce, it comes as no surprise that it is vital in public relations (PR), which main role is to manage communication processes. However, the use of English as a lingua franca in PR has been relatively poorly researched. Thus, addressing this gap in research, the present paper aims to scrutinise the use of English by PR professionals in Poland. Taking the ESP approach, the study focuses on determining English proficiency levels, defining language needs and specifying most frequent communicative contexts and situations in the PR professional practice. Based on an online quantitative survey of one hundred Polish PR practitioners representing various types of organizations and institutions, the results of the study have clearly showed that the English language is used extensively at the workplace and plays a significant role in their professional lives, especially those pursuing corporate careers. The findings have also indicated the importance of writing skills and emphasised that the growing number of workplace interactions takes place in the virtual environment that poses new challenges to ESP didactics. The majority of the respondents have also signalled a need and willingness for further ESP training tailored to their actual workplace needs. Therefore, the findings of the study might be used to create a better match between the actual use of English in the workplace and training of PR professionals.

Key Words: ELF, BELF, public relations, professional communication

1. Introduction English has nowadays a well established position of the lingua franca of international business contacts (Brutt-Griffler, 2002; Bargiela-Chiappini, 2006; Nickerson, 2005). Accordingly, proficiency in English is perceived as a must, especially in international corporations (Louhiala-Salminen and Kankaanranta, 2011). In reference to the use of ELF for business communication, Louhiala-Salminem and her colleagues (2005)

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have proposed the term Business English Lingua Franca (BELF), understood as a “code” for doing business that takes as its reference point not “an ordinary native speaker” but “an ordinary businessman” (LouhialaSalminem and Charles, 2006: 31). As it emphasises the idea that the language ownership is not ascribed to native speakers (NSs) but shared by its users, all BELF speakers enjoy equal status of communicators who use a foreign language for their common work-related purpose(s). More recently, Finnish organizational communication researchers – Louhiala-Salminem and Kankaanranta (2011) – have put forward the notion of Global Communicative Competence (GCC) that encompasses three elements: multicultural competence, competence in English as Business Lingua Franca (BELF) and communicator’s business know-how. Although competence in English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) involves the knowledge of the rudiments of the English language or the “core”, using Jenkins’s (2007) terminology, it primarily “focuses on interactional skills, rapport building, and the ability to ask for and provide clarifications” (ibidem: 246). The proposed theoretical GCC model has been applied in a research study conducted in five multinational corporations operating in Finland on the sample of 987 respondents. Multicultural competence is understood in this model as interlocutors’ adaptation skills and flexibility in interacting with representatives of various cultures. According to respondents who participated in the study, the importance of national culture in professional contacts is overweighed by organizational culture of a particular workplace, correlating positively with the quality of personal relations and work effectiveness. The results of the study have shown that proficiency in English is regarded as one of the key skills required at work. Nevertheless, the study has emphasized that the main determinant of successful professional communication is not a mastery of grammar but specialist vocabulary and related genres. Thus, grammar and vocabulary should be sufficiently good to enable reasonably effortless communication (ibidem: 253). Finally, the respondents pinpointed to the importance of listening skills and an ability to recognize various accents of English while interacting with other users of ELF. Furthermore, successful communication was defined as effectiveness in completing tasks and achieving professional goals. Thus, the use of EFL is considered efficient as long as interlocutors are familiarized with the rules of business activity and have specialist knowledge of a particular professional field, and communicative competence might be considered as an essential component of general professional competence (cf. Wąsikiewicz-Firlej, forthcoming). Although there is quite a large body of research on ELF in various professional contexts, the use of English by public relations practitioners remains an unexplored niche. Hence, the present paper, reporting the results of a research study on the use of English by PR practitioners, aims

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to respond to the lack of relevant research in this field. The following sections provide a lead-in concerning the use of English in PR with a special emphasis put on its use in Poland.

2. English and Public Relations Language is the basic tool of PR practitioners who carefully select words and rhetorical strategies to represent the interests and opinions of organizations from the private and public sectors. As Peirson-Smith et al. (2010: 523) put it: “[W]ords to the PR professionals are what bricks and mortar are to the builder”. PR communication takes both the spoken and written forms, yet writing plays the central role since most of the spoken acts are firstly written down. For example, speeches or interviews are preceded by such documents as press statements or Q&A (questions and answers) sheets. Additionally, PR writing does not only involve the mastery of language, but also the principles of persuasion since: “Every piece of public relations writing has as its aim to inform, persuade or influence behaviour. The task of the writer is to produce a copy that will achieve these aims.” (Treadwell and Treadwell, 2003: 23). Consequently, outstanding spoken and written communication skills and their creative use in one’s native language as well as in English are considered fundamental requirements for those entering the profession. Nevertheless, despite its key role in business communication, the use of English as a lingua franca in public relations is rarely investigated. Public relations literature, in general, recognizes cultural issues (Inoue, 2003; Rensburg, 2003) but, except for Freitag and Stokes (2009) who discussed unsuccessful translations in global PR campaigns, it apparently ignores those related to language. In this vein, significant contributions have been provided by Peirson-Smith and her colleagues (2010) who studied the use of English by PR professionals in Hong Kong, and Louhiala-Salminem and Kankanranta (2012) whose research investigated internal communication in two companies in Finland. The respondents in Peirson-Smith and her colleagues’ study (2010: 529) have unanimously ascribed English the status of the global lingua franca of business that plays a central role in PR. Proficiency in English, encompassing both communicative and cultural competences, has been recognized as an essential requirement for successful careers of PR managers. Additionally, it was seen as the major tool for collaboration, especially important in the field of PR, “where people must work together to create complex communication products” (ibidem: 529). One of the major obstacles in successful collaboration appeared collaborators’ different levels of proficiency in English, resulting in lower efficiency and engaging senior managers in editing and proofreading texts in English, illustrated by the following excerpt:

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I spend about 30% more of my time in a day than I should, editing poorly written releases, newsletters, articles or status reports… if I’d wanted to do this type of work then I would have gone into publishing instead (Peirson-Smith, 2010: 531). The main premise of Louhiala-Salminem and Kankanranta’s (2012: 262) study is that “language is an issue” in corporate internal communication in the global context”. The scholars investigated the use of English as a lingua franca, as exemplified by a non-governmental organization (NGO) pursuing the multilingual strategy and five companies who opted for a less rigid corporate language policy that adopted English as the common language of the organization. The results of the study showed that the multilingual strategy was perceived as negatively affecting work because it led to confusion and evoked the feeling of inequality among the NGO employees. The informants also complained about the lack or low level of translation of the organizational documents and signaled the need for clear specification of a common language. By contrast, such problems were not signaled by the employees of the companies who adopted English as the shared language. For everyday communication the informants needed both their native language and English, or rather BELF, as the majority of interactions (70%) were with non-native speakers. The use of other languages was rather incidental and 70% of interactions took place in the internal context, mainly to communicate with colleagues. An important quality characterizing the use of BELF discourse was the simplification of language structures contrasted with the high significance of professional vocabulary and genres – indispensable prerequisites of effective work. All in all, the participants were satisfied with the language strategy adopted by their companies, motivating it with fact that BELF enabled equality and did not privilege native speakers (Louhiala-Salminem & Kankanranta, 2012: 266). Despite overwhelmingly positive results of employing English as the main language of international communication, the scholars, however, pointed to the problem of discrepancies in the levels of English proficiency, posing the risk of inequality and imbalance of power, hindering work efficiency.

3. Public Relations in Poland – an overview It might be assumed that public relations, interpreted as a discipline focusing on persuading others to gain and maintain power, has its origins in antiquity, as the art highly valued by the ancient Greeks and Romans, the traces of which might be also found in ancient Syria, Persia or Egypt. Historically, the milestone in the development of PR was the French Revolution which popularised the notion of public opinion among broad audiences. However, the cradle of modern public relations are considered the USA, where it emerged with

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the development of private industry in the 1930s. The first PR handbook benchmarking the birth of the new discipline – Crystallizing Public Opinion by Edward Bernays – was published in 1923 in New York. The newly-emerged branch of learning instantly became an academic course taught by Bernays at the New York University (cf. Tench and Yeomans, 2006; Black, 1998; Wojcik, 2001). A dynamic development of PR was observed both in the USA and Europe after World War II. In the UK, for example, quite a number of people formerly working for the army of the Ministry of Information decided to pursue their careers in PR as civilians. Additionally, a remarkable interest in the new discipline was also noticed on the part of local governments. Finally, in 1947, following consultations with PR practitioners, the Institute of Public Relation was established in London, which had an unprecedented impact on the development of PR practice in Britain (cf. Tench and Yeomans, 2006; Black, 1998). Due to geopolitical reasons, the growth of PR was not mirrored on the other side of the iron curtain which effectively blocked the flow of ideas to Poland. Despite the fact that public relations tasks were executed long before 1989 – the beginning of political transformation in Poland – and a number of business organizations and institutions employed a press officer or spokesperson, the discipline as such was not even known to wider audiences and was absent in academic curricula. The symbolic year of the birth of PR in Poland in the shape known today, could be 1994, when the Polish Association of Public Relations was established. The organisation was based on the idea of the Chartered Institute of Public Relations, which is a nongovernmental organisation of PR specialists from the United Kingdom that offers training and advice on the issue connected with PR. Currently, public relations has become enormously popular and dynamically growing field of work and studies in modern Poland, offering interesting career prospects (cf. Wójcik, 2001). As far as the linguistic landscape in Poland is concerned, Polish has the status of the official language, but a growing importance of English, especially in professional contexts, is observed. Currently, Poland belongs to Kachru’s (1985) “expanding circles”, especially after the accession to the EU in 2004 which created new “opportunities for cross border trade” and encouraged “the development of an international language or languages” (Rogerson-Revell, 2007: 105). Additionally, since the theory and practice of public relations have been adopted from the English-speaking world, the strong presence of English in this field, both in the academia and workplace, does not come as a surprise. It predominates not only daily oral and written communications, but is also traced in the PR terminology in Polish, saturated with borrowings from English (Wilk, 2009). Thus, its mastery seems a must for PR practitioners.

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4. Research study 4.1 Research rationale and approach The use of English by PR professionals in Poland is a poorly researched niche which provides a good rationale for the present research. In view of that, the current study aims to examine how public relations professionals perceive the role and use of the English language in their daily professional practice and identify their language needs. It will specifically focus on: • self-evaluation of proficiency in English, • the use of spoken and written genres in PR practice, • language needs and further learning, • the role of proficiency in English in individual career development. The study is enrooted in the ESP tradition that considers needs analysis and specification of skills the core of any ESP syllabus design (Munby, 1987; Dudley-Evans and St. John, 1998).

4.2 Method The study employed a quantitative research design and took a form of an online survey. The research instrument was a questionnaire administered to a group of public relations practitioners, which was available at http://moje-ankiety.pl. The questionnaire was constructed in collaboration with two public relations practitioners and pilot-tested to a group of ten public relations interns in order to verify the relevance and formulation of the questions. Several items, considered vague or ambiguous, were improved. The online form of the survey enabled the researcher to gather information about the participants, such as IP number, location, date of participation, and facilitated the process of computing data. The link and invitation to participate in the study were sent by email to 500 PR practitioners whose contact data were available at the most influential Polish PR portal www.proto.pl. Altogether 500 email addresses were randomly selected from the online data base. The initial response rate was 9.6% which was not satisfactory. Thus the e-mail campaign was continued until the sample reached 100 respondents at the end of July 2013.

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4.3 Results and discussion

4.3.1 Respondents’ data All 100 participants who returned the questionnaire were Polish and spoke the Polish language as their mother tongue. The vast majority of them were women (70%). 90% of the professionals who took part in the study had a Master’s or higher degree, 6% declared to have a secondary education and the remaining 4% had a Bachelor’s degree. The participants represented a number of disciplines, ranging from business studies (21%), political marketing (16%) and Polish philology (15%), to English philology (2%), law (1%), pedagogy (1%) or civil engineering (1%). Only four participants majored in public relations which is connected to relatively short educational traditions of this discipline in Poland. Despite significant differences in their educational profiles, the majority of participants (56%) reported to have completed post-graduate courses in public relations or rhetoric. The average age of participants was 34 and their experience in the profession 7.5 years. A range of different types of business organizations was represented, equally distributed between small and medium sized companies (34%), large companies (28%) and multinational corporations (24%). The remaining 14% of participants represented cultural/educational institutions or public administrations.

4.3.2 The use of foreign languages at work All respondents found their mother tongue, Polish, the most important language at their work, used on a daily basis, irrespective of the type of organizations they represented. Thus it was given priority both in small sized companies and multinationals. English, however, was indicated the second most important language, used every day by 42% of respondents. Only 2% did not use English at all for their professional interactions. The use of other foreign languages can be qualified as incidental (see Table 1). Surprisingly, even the languages of Poland’s neighbours – German and Russian – were used only occasionally, which confirms the status of English as the global language (Graddol, 2000).

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Language Polish English German Russian French Spanish Other

At least once a

At least once a

At least once a

week 0% 28.00% 6.00% 2.00% 0% 2.00% 2.00%

month 0% 20.00% 6.00% 4.00% 0% 0% 4.00%

year 0% 6.00% 18.00% 10.00% 2.00% 4.00% 6.00%

Every day 100.00% 42.00% 2.00% 0% 0% 0% 0%

Never 0% 4.00% 68.00% 84.00% 98.00% 94.00% 88.00%

Table 1. The use of foreign languages at work

4.3.3 Declared level of proficiency in English When asked about their level of proficiency in English, the majority of respondents defined it as upper immediate (B2), 36%, or advanced (C1), 36%, while 10% declared to be at the near native-proficiency level (C2). Only 12% classified their English as intermediate (B1) or elementary (A1, A2). It must be noted here that not a single respondent declared not to know English at all. These findings corroborate the assumption that due to their specific language-centered professional needs, proficiency in English of PR practitioners is higher than average. According to the results, over 80% of respondents have mastered English at the level enabling fluent communication. Apparently, certain doubts concerning the reliability of the levels of proficiency appear since they have not objectively measured by an external test, but defined subjectively by respondents.

4.3.4 Skills evaluation As for the skills, the vast majority of respondents evaluated their speaking (72%), writing (72%), reading (82%) and listening (74%) skills in English as good or very good. In total, less than 10% qualified their skills as poor or very poor. Unsurprisingly, respondents were mostly satisfied with their reading skills. Skills Speaking Writing Reading Listening

Very poor 2.0% 2.0% 2.0% 2.0%

Poor 8.0% 6.0% 2.0% 4.0%

Satisfactory 18.0% 20.0% 14.0% 20.0%

Table 2. Self-evaluation of EFL skills

Good 46.0% 52.0% 36.0% 40.0%

Very good 26.0% 20.0% 46.0% 34.0%

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XII Congreso AELFE (2013) 4.3.5 Importance of particular linguistics components

Findings pertaining to the perception of importance of particular elements of language (i.e. knowledge of general vocabulary in English, grammatical accuracy, knowledge of specialist vocabulary, pronunciation) are in line with previous research on professional uses of English (e.g., Louiala-Salminem and Kankaanranta, 2001, 2012; Peirson-Smith et al., 2010; Rogerson-Revell, 2007; Spence and Lin, 2013). Top importance was ascribed to knowledge of general and specialist vocabulary. Grammatical accuracy, although considered very important by 16% of respondents, was not completely ignored since 46% found it important for successful communication, which implies that in this particular professional group putting your message across is not sufficient – it must be also correctly worded. This principle, however, does not pertain to pronunciation that was considered unimportant or not very important by 69% of respondents.

How important for successful communication is: Unimportant Not very import ant Rather import ant Important Very import ant

Knowledge of general vocabulary in English

Grammatical accuracy

Knowledge of specialist vocabulary

Pronunciation

0% 2.0% 6.0% 32.0% 60.0%

0% 10.0% 28.0% 46.0% 16.0%

0% 4.0% 4.0% 52.0% 40.0%

31% 38% 6% 15% 10%

Table 3. Linguistic components and successful communication

4.3.6 The use of genres As noted by Louhiala-Salminem and Kankaanranta (2011), mastery of work-specific genres, along with specialist vocabulary, are the main determinants of successful professional communication. Summarised responses to the question concerning the use of spoken genres by PR specialists, rank informal discussions concerning professional matters and chats at the top of the hierarchy. Other frequently indicated spoken genres, used on a daily basis by more than 15% of respondents, included contacts related to external correspondence, relation building, and telephone conversations, preceding genres commonly associated with professional communication, such as presentations or negotiations. The frequency of the use of these genres calls for a need to develop the informal register and focus on English used for socializing. Similar conclusions were also drawn in a narrative study of Polish professionals who clearly indicated the role of

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Every day

At least once a week

At least once a month

At least once a year

Never

20.0%

20.0%

32.0%

16.0%

12.0%

12.0%

26.0%

28.0%

20.0%

14.0%

0% 18.0% 4.0% 12.0% 0% 16.0% 2.0% 16.0%

14.0% 22.0% 14.0% 22.0% 12.0% 36.0% 10.0% 22.0%

30.0% 34.0% 16.0% 20.0% 26.0% 28.0% 26.0% 22.0%

20.0% 20.0% 42.0% 26.0% 34.0% 10.0% 26.0% 18.0%

34.0% 6.0% 24.0% 18.0% 28.0% 8.0% 34.0% 22.0%

Contacts related to external correspondence

18.0%

26.0%

22.0%

20.0%

14.0%

Conflict resolution Negotiating Teamwork

0% 4.0% 4.0%

6.0% 16.0% 20.0%

16.0% 14.0% 24.0%

26.0% 26.0% 22.0%

52.0% 40.0% 28.0%

Genres Informal discussions concerning professional matters Formal discussions concerning professional matters Teleconference Informal chats Presentations Seeking advice/ information Training, explaining, demonstrating Telephone conversations Presenting ideas/ strategies Relation building

Table 3. Spoken genres

4.3.7 Written genres As far as the written genres are concerned, the dominating genre of the PR practice appears e-mail, both formal and informal; the latter used every day by 26% of respondents and the former by 20%, respectively. Other genres, used at least once a week by one-fifth of respondents, include memos, formal letter and slides. Almost one-third of respondents produced more complex journalistic forms, such as press releases, newsletters, and articles or prepared minutes and reports at least once a month. House journals are prepared monthly by 16% of respondents. Importantly, it must be emphasized here that a significant part of written communication takes part in the virtual environment, and the web2 media, such as the blog, forum or social portals have been recently incorporated to PR practice.

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Written genres

6.0% 2.0% 6.0% 20.0% 26.0% 0% 2.0% 0% 0% 0% 2.0%

At least once a week 20.0% 20.0% 12.0% 32.0% 30.0% 8.0% 8.0% 18.0% 10.0% 10.0% 10.0%

At least once a month 18.0% 12.0% 14.0% 20.0% 20.0% 30.0% 26.0% 32.0% 32.0% 26.0% 28.0%

At least once a year 12.0% 30.0% 30.0% 20.0% 20.0% 16.0% 26.0% 34.0% 32.0% 34.0% 16.0%

44.0% 36.0% 38.0% 8.0% 4.0% 46.0% 38.0% 16.0% 26.0% 30.0% 44.0%

20.0%

26.0%

20.0%

16.0%

18.0%

0%

2.0%

16.0%

14.0%

68.0%

Every day

Memo Formal letter (sent by post) Informal letter (sent by post) Formal email Informal email Minutes Report Slides ( e.g., Power Point) Press release Article Newsletter Internet communication (social media, forums, blogs, etc.) House journal

Never

Table 4. Written genres

4.3.8 Language needs and further development Despite the fact that over 80% of respondents defined their level of proficiency in English as upperintermediate or higher, 74% signaled a need to improve their English. Moreover, certain preferences for the use of ELF might be observed since the majority of respondents feel more comfortable in interactions with non-native (70%) rather than native (52%) speakers of English. Table 5 offers a summary of the responses specifying respondents’ needs to improve their particular English language skills. Overall, the most essential ones include writing skills. Additionally, a need to improve both specialist and general vocabulary was strongly signaled. Even though grammatical correctness is often perceived as a rather secondary element of workplace interactions, following the principle that “As long as the core message gets across, your English doesn’t need to be perfect.” (Louhiala-Salminem and Kankaanranta, 20012: 266), 38% of respondents verbalized a need to improve it. This might suggest that in comparison to other professional fields, the expected levels of English proficiency are much higher in the field of public relations. The surveyed PR practitioners also indicated the need to improve skills typically associated with professional communication, namely presentation and negotiation skills.

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Skills Pronunciation General vocabulary Specialist vocabulary Grammar Speaking skills Writing skills Listening skills Reading skills Presentation skills Negotiation skills Other skills

I need to improve the following English language skills: Neither Strongly Agree agree or agree disagree 8.0% 36.0% 28.0% 22.0% 28.0% 36.0% 16.0% 42.0% 26.0% 6.0% 32.0% 42.0% 16.0% 34.0% 32.0% 26.0% 28.0% 30.0% 16.0% 32.0% 32.0% 12.0% 22.0% 38.0% 22.0% 20.0% 40.0% 18.0% 26.0% 32.0% 4.0% 8.0% 12.0%

Disagree

Strongly disagree

8.0% 2.0% 4.0% 10.0% 6.0% 4.0% 2.0% 4.0% 6.0% 10.0% 4.0%

20.0% 12.0% 12.0% 10.0% 12.0% 12.0% 18.0% 24.0% 12.0% 14.0% 72.0%

Table 5. Further development of proficiency in English

As far as the practical realization of intentions is concerned, 56% of respondents took some steps to improve their English, while 34% intended to do so. Among those systematically working on the development of their English proficiency, 20% attended an i-company language course, 24% participated in a course outside their workplace, and the others opted for a self-study.

4.3.9 English and professional success The overwhelming majority of respondents (80%) agreed that proficiency in English facilitates professional successful and is taken for granted not only in PR, but in any type of job. As one of the respondents noticed (R 48): “If you don’t speak English, your professional development is blocked”. In the last open question respondents were asked to specify the benefits of sufficient proficiency in English for their individual careers and organizations they represented. Overall, the most frequent themes identified in the responses were those related to comfort in interactions with foreigners, leading to better interpersonal relations, positive professional image, and effectiveness. In other words, employees proficient in English are more flexible and quickly respond to dynamically changing circumstances, turning any interaction into long-term relation building, oriented at tangible business outcomes, offering their organization a competitive advantage. Moreover, on the part of the organizations, the most important merits pertained to

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credibility and a positive image.

5. Conclusions In sum, the results of the study have clearly demonstrated that Polish remains the key language of public relations practitioners in Poland, but English undoubtedly appears the main lingua franca of their workplace communication, applied in a variety of formal and informal contexts, both in spoken and written discourse. English proficiency is seen an asset both at a macro level of a company, contributing to its positive, professional image, and at a micro level, boosting efficiency and individual careers, thus providing better employment prospects. The majority of respondents, despite their good working knowledge of English, declared willingness to improve it, highlighting the centrality of writing skills and importance of spoken communication, with a special regard to informal contacts essential for relationship building. Additionally, the study has also illustrated the emergence of the Internet, especially web2 tools, such as forums and social media in PR practice, as well as the primary role of e-mail correspondence in business contacts. PR practitioners undoubtedly constitute a niche of relatively advanced language learners who are interested in developing their work-oriented skills, especially through participation in courses tailored to their needs. It must be also noted that, following Peirson-Smith et al. (2010: 533), the workplace itself provides excellent opportunities to develop employees’ English language skills, highly competitive to those offered by the system of formal education environment.

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Abingdon and New York: Routledge. Graddol, D. (2000). The future of English. London: The British Council. Inoue, T. (2003). “An overview of public relations in Japan and the self-correction concept” in K. Sriramesh & D. Verčič (eds.). The global public relations handbook: Theory, research and practice, 68-85. Mahwah: Erlbaum. Kachru, B. (1985). “Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: the English Language in the Outer Circle” in R. Quirk and H.G Widdowson (eds.), English in the world: teaching and learning the language and literatures, 11-30. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Louhiala-Salminem, L. & M. Charles. (2006). “English as the lingua franca of international business communication: Whose English? What English?” in J.C. Palmer-Silveira, M.F. Ruiz-Garrido & I. Fortanet Gómez (eds), Intercultural and international business communication. Theory, research and teaching, 27-54. Bern: Peter Lang. Louhiala-Salminen, L. & A. Kankaanranta. (2011). “Professional communication in a global business context: The notion of Global Communicative Competence”. IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication 54 (3): 244-262. Louhiala-Salminen, L. & A. Kankaanranta. (2012). “Language as an issue in international internal communication: English or local language? If English, what English?”. Public Relations Review 38: 262-269. Louhiala-Salminen, L., M. Charles & A. Kankaanranta. (2005). “English as a lingua franca in Nordic corporate mergers: two case companies”. English for Specific Purposes 24, 4: 401-421. Munby, J. (1978). Communicative syllabus design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nickerson, C. (2005). “English as a lingua franca in international business contexts”. English for Specific Purposes 24, 4: 367-380. Peirson-Smith, A., V.J. Bhatia, S. Bremer, & R.H. Jones. (2010). “Creative English and public relations in Hong Kong”. World Englishes 29, 4: 523-535. Press. Rensburg, R. (2003). “Public relations in South Africa: from rhetoric to reality” in K. Sriramesh & Verčič (eds.), The global public relations handbook: Theory, research and practice, 505-521. Mahwah:

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Erlbaum. Rogerson-Revell, P. 2007. “Using English for International Business: A European Case Study”. English for Specific Purposes 26: 103-120. Spence, P. and Gi-Zen Liu. (2013). “Engineering English and the high-tech industry: A case study of an English needs analysis of process integration engineers at a semiconductor manufacturing company in Taiwan”. English for Specific Purposes 32: 97-109. Tench, R. and L. Yeomans (eds.) (2006). Exploring Public Relations. Harlow: Ft: Prentice Hall. Treadwell D.F. & B. Treadwell B. (2003). Public Relations writing. Principles in practice. London: SAGE. Wąsikiewicz-Firlej, E. (forthcoming). “English in the global workplace: a narrative approach”. Discourse and Interaction. Wilk, A. (2009). The use of English borrowings in the Polish discourse of public relations. Unpublished MA dissertation, Poznań, Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza. Wójcik, K. (2001). Public relations od A do Z. Warszawa: Agencja Wydawnicza “Placet”.

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Difficulties of Russian as a foreign language through the eyes of teachers Cognitive Linguistics and Languages for Specific Purposes Тatiana Strokovskaya (The Dubna University, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna. 2013)

Abstract The article is devoted to the process of teaching Russian Language in international groups of non-linguists through the eyes of the teachers. The author analyses the difficulties for teachers, which complicate the process. It based on interviews of the teachers, who work, as individually and in groups, with different audiences, training Russian for special purposes. According to the observations made, at the training process in international groups of different levels affects the specific linguistic and cultural background, etiquette difference, communication failure, the country of origin and age of the students and the teacher.

Key Words: Russian as foreign language, analysis of interview, linguistic and cultural difficulties of teachers in training process.

This work represents results of the research conducted in 2013 among teachers of Russian as a foreign language. The main goal was to find out what difficulties face teachers working in groups of the students studying Russian for special purposes. More than 20 teachers from various countries and educational institutions, lecturers and tutors from Russia, Poland, and Bulgaria working in groups and individually took part in the research. We received 20 completed forms of questionnaires, but at the time of interview it became clear that one questionnaire (MSU) was filled in by a group of teachers and contained a consolidated opinion of such group of colleagues, and therefore total number of the persons taking part in the research could come close to 30 persons. It is important to note that the respondents participating in the research work in groups of students and experts of different age,

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of humanitarian, natural-science, and of engineering specialties. The author did not set a goal to analyze difficulties of teaching Russian as a foreign language among philologists and other linguistic specialties considering mastering of Russian as a professional competence. Review of the opinions on difficulties of teachers could use as a material for analysis of the methodology of teaching Russian among people of different age and specialties using a foreign language for professional purposes. Participants in the research were teachers of the Foreign Languages and Regional Study Faculty of the Lomonosov Moscow State University (Moscow, Russia), of the Russian-Polish Institute (Wroclaw, Poland), of the Dubna International University of the Nature, Society, and Man (Dubna, Russia), of the Educational Scientific Center of the Joint Institute of Nuclear Research (Dubna, Russia), of the Kliment Ohridski Sofia State University (Sofia, Bulgaria), of the Angel Kynchev Ruse State University, the Silistra branch (Silistra, Bulgaria). Practically, for all the teachers, with the exception of four of them (tow from Bulgaria, and tow from Poland), Russian was their native language. As far as language is an important element of culture and the main communication medium it would be interesting to note the interrelation of studying of language with the process of cultural adaptation and overcoming of “communication failures” arising sometimes during the work in unfamiliar cultural environment, and more than that in an international group. With the exception of three cases, all the teachers work in international groups. National structure of the groups is very wide. Generally, the groups engaged in short-term (single semester) programs were multicultural, consisting of representatives of 3-5 nations (cultures). There were also cozy combinations of groups. For example, respondent teachers noted mixed groups with students from 1) India and Pakistan; 2) USA and Iran; 3) China, Afghanistan, and Mongolia; 4) an extraordinary group of three students: an elementary school teacher from France, a historian from Italy, and a lady artist from Brazil.

Students In case of group studying, a minimum quantity of students in a group is 3 persons and maximum 18 persons (but in exceptional cases). On the average, there are 8-12 students in a group. Students can be classified by age into three groups of 18-20, 23-25, 26-37 above age. Therewith, it is

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possible to separate two main cores: the students of universities who have chosen Russian as second foreign language, and young specialists of international corporations and scientific institutions cooperating with Russia. Some of them prepare in Russia their master’s theses, some are postgraduates or have long-term labor contracts and thereby can study systematically without interruption. Representatives of the senior age category, mainly, studied Russian in the past and mastered sufficient communicative skills for comfortable work and life in the Russian-speaking environment. Their objective is maintenance and improvement of language skills. Specialties of students are represented by technical field (Kazakhstan, China, Turkey, Iran, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan), medicine (India, Pakistan), physics, biophysics, radiobiology (Bulgaria, Mongolia, Azerbaijan, the Czech Republic, Romania, Germany, the Republic of South Africa), history (Bulgaria, the USA, Italy). Businesspersons also learn Russian (the USA, Japan, China, Turkey, Germany, and France). Before the disintegration of the USSR and of the socialist community in the nineties of the XX century, Russian was the language of international communication for the republics of the USSR, and for the COMECON and the Warsaw Treaty Organization member states. Russian was studied at schools and universities of the East and Central European states, and students and experts from such states had no difficulties in socializing in the territory of the USSR. Starting from the nineties, the situation changed. The circle of interaction of experts from different countries extended. Nowadays, as teachers of many universities recognize, Russian is not specified any more in curriculum of majority of specialties, and in the specialties where it still is present competing with English, there are no students willing to study it. For the new generation of participants in international projects, English gradually became the preferable language of international communication. However, the level of proficiency in English among the ordinary Russians, as well as among the majority of the organizations providing services for functioning of professional communities in Russia, firstly, significantly differs, and secondly, in many cases is insufficient and complicating due to the same the everyday life of foreign employees and of their families. For the majority of foreigners from the CIS countries and from the states of the Central Asia (for example Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan), Russian remains preferable in comparison with English. An increasing interest in mastering of Russian is also being shown in China. An additional motivation for studying Russian is the need in basic ideas of the cultural environment and

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features of everyday life and business etiquette which the foreigners working with Russia face. Taking into account the above said, teachers initially are almost equally focused both on linguistic and on communicative and cultural tasks as well. In other words, a teacher has to facilitate knowledge of Russian in the necessary and sufficient volume for professional activity and comfortable life in the country in shortest possible period. Such task defines specifics and difficulties of teaching Russian as a foreign language.

The level of basic knowledge and general methodical difficulties. The level of initial language training of the participants in groups was the most various, from zero to advanced level. As a whole, it is possible to note utilitarian approach to language, an aspiration, first, to master the sections and subjects, which facilitate communication at professional level. Quite often students of language classes do not seek development of speaking skills towards a variety, but quite opposite, they use the most basic constructions allowing understanding the interlocutor, and preferring the use of international words and of universal grammatical constructions. Having reached a certain sufficient, according to their opinion, level, they stop studying. About 15% of the students stops studying when start socializing without difficulties with friends and colleagues, and writing in Russian. It represents a certain methodical complication for a teacher who has got used to a traditional manner of mastering and presentation of a course according the language sections accepted in the philological environment. International six-step system methodologies are relatively new in application to Russian. It is a paradox when teachers not being philologists reach results quicker and easier than professional language teachers do. It happens due to common understanding of the purposes by the student and the teacher, to concentration on the practical side of use of language.

Russian in opinions of teachers. Results of poll. A consolidated list of difficulties in teaching Russian looks as follows. - Distinction of mentality and temperament (both between students and between group and the teacher); - Different understanding of the subject and purposes of the training; - Difficulties in multicultural audience, especially when persons from the conflicting countries sit nearby.

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A curious discovery of mental character appeared in the fact that the teachers of Russian being of the same nationality as students do not consider the students as foreigners in relation to Russian. For example, a Bulgarian teacher describing his work in an international Bulgarian-Turkish group calls foreigners only Turkish students, as they do not speak “neither Russian, nor Bulgarian”. That is the classification “foreigner -not foreigner” is built not in relation to Russian, but concerning the country of origin. There was an interesting comment of a teacher from the Silista University (Bulgaria) on national structure of group: “From national point of view, the group is uniform. But considering the region where the Silistra is situated, it is possible to say that groups diverse as in this region there live many Bulgarians considering Turkish their ethnic language. Actually, the language in which they communicate is not modern literary Turkish language, but it is some archaic Turkish which includes Bulgarian and international lexicon filling the new realities entering our life” (Tsvetanka Pavlova, the University of Silistra, Bulgaria). Particulars of national cultures should be paid attention during planning of training and work in classes. “For example, teacher should understand and take into account that Japanese did not get used to conversation with the teacher, in Japan they do not study rhetoric and verbal performance, therefore students like to answer questions and speak in short simple phrases. But written tasks are their strong qualities” (M. Tokareva, the Moscow State University, Russia). Representatives of some cultures work enthusiastically in pairs, construct dialogs (Bulgarians, Italians, Azerbaijani), willingly and successfully fulfill group tasks (Germans, Bulgarians, Vietnamese), others have difficulties in the same tasks (Czechs, Romanians), but they can show themselves in individual tasks, and so on. Teachers of international groups unanimously note that some students (Europeans) got used to study, to get everything (effortlessly make notes, study, and try to apply in conversation practice), and others (Americans) require command and formalization of everything (from Syllabus program to every detailed homework). Some of them (Japanese, Mongols) do not like and are not able to answer and conduct verbal discussion, others (Americans) poorly work in group. Usually the teacher treats mistakes of students with a certain indulgence when they do not lead to change of the main sense of a statement, encouraging students to express themselves on a given professional subject without being afraid of mistakes. It happens because the main objective of language training for special purposes is communication and use of professional literature. The most serious difficulties arose before 20% of the teachers at the initial stage. It is curious that only one

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of the teachers worked with a mixed international group, and the others – with representatives of one nation. The comments were given that complexity of work with the students of technical specialties studying Russian at the initial level at university is in the fact that the training program “starts not from scratch”. Students are required to have a certain command of language, and there in university they build up their knowledge by means of learning a foreign language for the special purposes, for example in computer, automotive, and electrical engineering fields. Students come with different level of proficiency in language. Twenty hours allocated for corrective course and for grammar review at the beginning of the course” (Ts. Pavlova). The majority of respondents (65%) consider the continuing level (intermediate) as the most difficult for achievement of progress. It is not surprising. At each level, there are difficulties, and at each level, the teacher tries to make an appreciable progress. However, such progress is more obvious at the initial stage when a person not knowing the alphabet and not able to read Cyrillic starts communicating, starts to speak, understand, read, and write. At the first stage the motivation of the teacher and of the student have synergetic effect. At the continuing (intermediate) level when the student reaches primary goals, the motivation of the teacher is stronger and as one of respondents notes: “the main problem is somehow to encourage the students to will to study” (R. Stankov, the Sofia State University. Bulgaria). I would like to remind that results of the 2009-1012 research among students of Russian classes showed that only 8% of the students specified that they simply like studying” (Strokovskaya T. Russian Language in the Perception of Foreign Employees of Joint Institute for Nuclear Research/The third international academic seminar on Communication – Culture – Creativity. Piła, Poland, 22-23 October 2012), and 15% of them answered that would stop studying as soon as they will get the results satisfying them. (ibid.) Finally, 20% of the teachers consider the advanced level as the most difficult from the point of view of an appreciable progress. One of these respondents is not a native Russian speaker. More than 75% of respondents noted the dependence of the difficulties faced by the teachers on age and the country of origin of students. The comments explain that specifics of the country of origin understood as cultural, but not as ethnic features. There are cultures to which Russian is more difficult as it differs seriously from native languages (Asian, including Turkish), but to other cultures the logic of Russian is more clear and closer (European and Slavic). Therewith, 40% recognized age and the country as a factor of influence, and 65% only the country having explained that young students remember and study quicker and easier, but students of senior age are more motivated and skilled. Therefore, the result is comparable. Another 10%

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added that the age of the teacher also could influence the process. Unfortunately, the respondents did not explain whether they considered professional experience of the teacher or psychological age specific (and probably personal and physical) characteristics. The most difficult for explanation are grammatical subjects. Around 20% of the teachers have no “difficult” or “disliked” subjects at all. Grammar closely connects with the logic of language and mentality, it reflects a special view of the world, and then dissimilarity of the basic mental models causes difficulty of mastering of this part of language. Among the known obstacles are prepositional and case system (in particular, training in the use of Dative and Genitive cases), types of verbs, and verbs of motion. In the first case, it is simply difficult to remember the system, in the second and the third cases – it is difficult to accept this logic, it is necessary to consider a set of situations and cases explaining the matter. Such subjects are topical at all levels of proficiency in language, and even for native language speakers. In some cases, it is difficult to explain a language phenomenon and the principles of definition of gender of nouns. There are difficulties in explanation of the principles of consequences of numerals and adjectives and participles (especially passive) with nouns. Besides the grammar, among difficult subjects the phonetics, especially differentiation of hard and soft consonants and for the advanced level – noted lexical subjects: word formation (for example verbs with prefixes), derivative parts of speech, the principles of direct and prepositional combination. Complexity at high level of proficiency in language is represented by mastering of professional vocabulary. In advanced groups, complicate lexical subjects are word formation, derivative parts of speech, the principles of using of prepositions. At this stage the teacher faces, firstly, the need to break the barrier of “false friends of translator”, secondly, introduction into lexicon of the students of adequate Russian equivalents to international words, where it is possible, and/or it is necessary, thirdly, to create a scientific or professional terminology and vocabulary depending on field of interests of the students. In comparison: at the time of determination of difficulties of Russian by students, the first place was given to cases and declensions, and to all the system of change of words (75%). At initial level, complications related to the fact of existence of changes, and on a high level of proficiency in language, difficulties in operating with direct and prepositional combination. About a half of the students called emphasis and articulation among difficulties. Lexical complications appeared on the third place. In the training process, the following tasks require additional efforts from the teacher:

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- to organize the creation of dialogs during the work in pairs (an ethno-cultural feature which needs to be taken into consideration); - to force students to think up own examples; - to initiate unprepared topics, messages and performances. Among the simplest types of works, the teachers called the following: - Common vocabulary and basic conversation subjects (“Acquaintance”, “Introduction”, “Family”) 35%. - Basic grammar (times and conjugations of verbs, schemes: “where-where to\from where”) 25%. - Syntactic structures. They are easily explained from the point of view of their functional values - 10%. - Linguistic analysis of text based on small statements of regional geographic or lyrical character - 10%. Other respondents answered that there were no simple subjects for them. Favorite and preferable types of work to the teachers compose the widest scale in various combinations. I will give some examples: - I like lexical section and grammar, I am able to get a person talking, to develop additional speech practice (Moscow). - Various forms of training with the presentations, and project methods, gaming. (Wroclaw). - Debates, mini-conferences, round tables, and so on. (Wroclaw). - Discussions, role-playing games, moderating real communicative situations (Dubna, Wroclaw, Silistra, Moscow). - Speaking and writing practice, listening (Wroclaw, Dubna, Sofia). - I prefer writing classes, but that is just the thing the students do not like (Sofia). I think, that all the above statements are generalized by the answer of one of the respondents, disarming with its frankness. For the majority favorable classes are the ones where “one does not have to explain grammar to students and to demand from them its correct use” (Silistra. Bulgaria).

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Training process in the cross-cultural context from the point of view of teachers The teachers responded as follows to a question about individual difficulties they faced or about specifics of work in particular groups: - There were technical difficulties connected with information technologies: preparation for the trainings with interactive board, preparation of video, lack of the necessary equipment or different level of proficiency in it in a group (30%). - Sometimes, there were problems in international groups related to understanding of a material, to relation to each other, motivation, and difference in cultures (25%). Here we will give an exceptional case of problems in overcoming of cultural and communication conflicts among the students. - It is difficult to work when a student has no experience in learning of foreign language or studying in the higher school and when working in a group a student has no feeling of collective nature (15%). - When one wants to discuss with the students a lot of interesting things, but they still poorly know the language (15%). - Communication problems: it was necessary to recall meaning of Turkish elements in Bulgarian, but this lexical layer, except for household lexicon, goes out of use (For the Bulgarian-Turkish group). A special group consists of the difficulties connected with situations of communicative failure or of conflict of cultures developing in the course of the classes. Here are given some examples: - The difficulties related to insufficient knowledge of culture of other people. Example: at classes where the accusative case was studied, we discussed what to present Mom, Dad, sister, and so on. There were students from different countries in the room. I proposed to present father with a beautiful wristwatch. Afghans agreed with the proposal, but Chinese looked at me with amazement. As it appeared, it can not be done in China: a timepiece is a reminder on transient of life, on approach of the end. - Communication and cultural subtleties when etiquette requirements to the behavior of foreign students are observed by them only in a limited circle of academic situations and are not observed in other situations, for example concerning teachers who do not work with them directly - they can ignore them, forget to thank them. - Nostalgia of the students training abroad for the native land which forces them to feel sometimes

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involuntary grief while carefully planning linguistic country-specific comparisons, and so on. Finally, a really curious comment was: - Among young people of Bulgaria, there is an opinion that Russian is old-fashioned and that the language of the real and future communication is English. Wherefrom their unwillingness to study Russian. It should be noted that a failure in communication not always carries negative emotional coloring. Sometimes it is simply surprising, unexpected, or neutral dissimilarities among cultures. Among the features of paraverbal communication, high-pitch tone of speech, aggressiveness in intonation were noted as often perceived as aggression. A manner of speaking loudly (Czechs, Romanians, Japanese), “crying” intonations (French), high speed of speech, including teachers, (Mongolians). Aspiration to finish phrases for the interlocutor, discourage Germans, Bulgarians, and Japanese who in general perceive it as roughness. It is indicative that only one respondent answered that never faced technical, communication or cultural difficulties during the work in international groups. Summing up, it is possible to note that features of national culture find their reflection in educational system. Working in multicultural audience, teachers of Russian as of a foreign language take into account that along with the general methodology it is necessary to apply specially developed methods and workarounds focused on language and culture of the native language speaker.

Reference sources Questioning of teachers of short-term (one semester) courses of Russian in 2012 July, 2013, made by T. E. Strokovskaya, International University of Nature, Society and Man «Dubna» (Russia) with the assistance of the Russian-Polish Institute (Wroclaw. Poland. https://www.facebook.com/Instytut.Polsko.Rosyjski). Strokovskaya T. (2012). “Russian Language in the Perception of Foreign Employees of Joint Institute for Nuclear Research”. The third international academic seminar on Communication – Culture – Creativity. Piła, Poland, 22-23 October. Tokareva M. A. (2012). (BASED ON MATERIALS OF 2007-2012 TERM PAPERS) in Materials of the III International Scientific Conference “Russia in Cross-culture Prospects”. Dubna University. Dubna.

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V. Zhelvis. (Russia in Foreign Students’ Eyes 2011). “Watching Russians”. Hidden rules of behavior. Moscow. A.Pavlovskaya. (2003). “How to deal with the Russians”. Moscow university press.

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Bilingual Polytechnic Dictionary of Metaphors: Spanish to English Ana Roldán Riejos and Silvia Molina Plaza Universidad Politécnica de Madrid

Abstract This paper provides an overview of an ongoing research project work: “A Polytechnical Bilingual Dictionary of Metaphors: Spanish-English/English-Spanish” done by the UPM consolidated research group “DISCYT” (Estudios Cognitivos del Discurso Científico-Técnico). A detailed explanation of the method adopted to identify key metaphors collected from the different subject areas is included. Drawing from recognized empirical methods (Pragglejaz 2007, Cameron 2007, Steen 2007), the examples have been examined according to the main tenets of conceptual metaphor and conceptual integration theory (Deignan 2005, Gibbs 2008, Lakoff 1993, Lakoff & Johnson 1999, Steen 2007, Fauconnier & Turner 2008). This forthcoming dictionary comprises metaphors of over 10 scientific and technical areas such as Aeronautical engineering, Agronomy, Architecture, Biotechnology, Civil engineering, Geology and Mining, Mechanical engineering, Nanotechnology, Naval and Maritime engineering, Sports and Telecommunications. In this paper, we focus on the study of examples taken from civil engineering, materials engineering and naval engineering. Representative cases are analyzed from several points of view (multimodal metaphor, linguistic information strategies and translation into target language) highlighting cross linguistic variations between Spanish and English.

Key Words: Metaphor identification; Engineering Metaphor; Dictionary of Engineering Metaphors

Resumen Este artículo presenta una panorámica del trabajo de investigación: “Diccionario Politécnico Bilingüe de Metáforas: Español-Inglés/ Inglés-Español” realizado por el grupo de investigación reconocido de la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid “DISCYT” (Estudios Cognitivos del Discurso Científico-Técnico). Incluye una pormenorizada explicación del método adoptado para la identificación de las principales

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metáforas de las distintas áreas de conocimiento estudiadas. Partiendo de métodos empíricos conocidos (Pragglejaz 2007, Cameron 2007, Steen 2007), las unidades léxicas seleccionadas pasan por varios filtros de acuerdo con los principios de la metáfora conceptual y de la teoría de integración conceptual (Deignan 2005, Gibbs 2008, Lakoff 1993, Lakoff & Johnson 1999, Steen 2007, Fauconnier & Turner 2008). La primera parte del diccionario Español-Inglés, de próxima publicación, comprende metáforas que proceden de áreas científico-técnicas como la ingeniería aeronáutica, la agronomía, la arquitectura, la biotecnología, la ingeniería civil, la geología y la minería, la ingeniería mecánica, la nanotecnología, la ingeniería naval y marítima, los deportes y la telecomunicación. En este artículo, nos ocupamos del estudio de ejemplos tomados de la ingeniería civil, la ingeniería de materiales y la ingeniería naval. Los casos más representativos son analizados desde varias perspectivas (metáfora multimodal, estrategias de información lingüística y traducción en lengua meta) subrayando las variaciones observadas entre español e inglés.

Palabras clave: Identificación de la metáfora; Metáfora en la ingeniería; Diccionario de metáforas de la ingeniería

Introduction Lakoff and Johnson (1980) showed that metaphor works as a powerful cognitive tool in human thought and therefore it does not occur only in language. They also proved that conceptual mappings in metaphor are bodily grounded. This lied down the basis for the Conceptual Theory of Metaphor that has developed ever since (Lakoff 1987; Johnson 1987; Kövecses 2000; Lakoff and Johnson 1999; Lakoff and Nuñez 2000; Gibbs 2008). Although the idea of a metaphor dictionary is not new (Deignan 1995), a Spanish-English dictionary of metaphors in scientific and technical language can be considered challenging and groundbreaking, given the number of disciplines to be covered and the extent of the cross-linguistic analysis. In this respect, when evaluating the scope and potential usefulness for both academics and professionals, the contribution of experts in these specific fields was deemed essential and sought after. The dictionary includes the following disciplines, most of them within engineering fields: Aeronautical engineering, Agronomy, Architecture, Biotechnology, Civil engineering, Geology and Mining, Mechanical engineering, Nanotechnology, Naval and Maritime engineering, Sports and Telecommunications. In the opening SpanishEnglish volume, a team of linguistic scholars belonging to UPM research group DISCYT have worked to

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pinpoint and cross-analyze over 8000 lexical items with frequent consultations with subject specialists. This paper examines a range of examples taken from Civil Engineering (CE) and Naval Engineering (NE). The procedure adopted for metaphor identification and the problems and solutions encountered are discussed in the sections below. In addition to previous known metaphor identification methods (e.g. The Metaphor Analysis Project, Pragglejaz group 2007), our approach was based on frequency of use, contextual clues and specialized and general dictionaries. For practical reasons, the variety of metaphorical cases gathered was structured and subsequently homogenized into a common system for all disciplines. Our main findings from a linguistic point of view are named below: (i) Given that metaphor is a cognitive mechanism that operates dynamically we have found not one but diverse layers of metaphorization. Examples as port; harbor; bridge are polysemous words that depending on the context can appear in different strata of metaphorization. We also examined the co-occurrence of metaphor and metonymy in a number of cases. (ii) Metaphor has a multimodal nature and therefore can appear in different scenarios activating various perception codes. This applies to conceptual, linguistic, or visual metaphor (Forceville 2010). To illustrate such representations, we have established the typology of “image metaphor” that basically triggers a visual image rather than the semantic network typical of conceptual metaphor. (iii) Metaphor is a cultural phenomenon and as such it has to be accommodated according to the language. For example, we have observed no systematic linguistic correspondence of Spanish into English or vice versa. The nature of mappings does fluctuate and metaphorical realizations in one language could be metonymic or plainly literal in the other.

Methods to identify metaphor Cameron in The Metaphor Analysis Project and the Pragglejaz group (2007) have proposed methods to identify linguistic metaphor. Both of them rely on contextual clues and the use of dictionary. Cameron differentiates between topic and vehicle, the latter bearing the metaphorical part and the former being the main theme of the text. Metaphors should satisfy two conditions: a contrast between the contextual meaning and the vehicle and a link between the contextual topic and the vehicle. Steen and the Pragglejaz group (2007) additionally recommend not to overlook the importance of collocates and historically older meanings. Neuman et al. 2013 point out that it is not easy to distinguish metaphorical from non-metaphorical language:

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“the boundary between the denotational basic meaning of a phrase and its extended metaphorical sense is fuzzy”. (Neuman et al. 2013:2). Although linguistic metaphor is fairly common in technical language, this fact does not simplify its detection. In auscultación, from a hydraulics and construction context and collocating with presas, the metaphor seems clear because of its general medical sense, unusually applied to inert substances. This use involves a personification. Conversely, rosa de los vientos (from naval engineering), a direct visual image is basically involved and this typology was grouped under the label of “image metaphors”. In this respect, we endorse Neuman et al.’s criterion of “selectional preference” (Ib.: 3), according to which metaphor involves a violation of meaning, and it happens when the constraints of literal language do not pertain. For example, the lexical units auscultación and fatiga are associated for the non-engineering expert with the medical domain rather than with construction or hydraulics.

Procedure followed in the Polytechnic Dictionary of Metaphors: examples Besides the above mentioned methods, we have relied on word collocates and context information (written material taken from different academic and professional genres); expert advice (academics, engineers, etc.) and visuals (videos, photographs, field visits). The use of specialized and general dictionaries have also helped to determine the presence of metaphor. The use of these tools was rounded off with numerous expert consultations and discussions upon the selected material. Table 1 showcases levels of metaphorization that were found. Given the fuzziness of meaning boundaries, these subdivisions are not clear-cut rather they respond to salience and operative reasons. Due to the fact that the part of the dictionary recently ended corresponds to Spanish-English, examples shown are in Spanish alongside their English equivalent. As can be seen, in most cases no direct matching from language to language can be established and a linguistic metaphor in Spanish can be a metonym in English. To characterize linguistic metaphor, collocational patterns and group clusters were particularly considered, for example revestimiento (CE) collocates with túnel (tunnel), and refers to a layer of cement that covers the tunnel walls. Similarly, alma, collocates with viga (beam) and represents its central part, while its English equivalent “web” involves another domain. Seno de vela (NE) in a literal sense calls to mind the curvature of a sail, but its English counterpart “belly” evokes a bodily part. Alternatively, image metaphor bolsters image formation rather than linguistic aspects. Examples of this metaphorization can be found in table 1 with their English translations.

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Linguistic metaphor

Image metaphor (visual)

Metonymy (Part/Whole; Cause/Effect)

Civil engineering Pluma (boom); Cabeza de pilote (pile cap); Viga (beam); Alma (de viga) (web); Auscultación (monitoring) Forjado en rosario (string forging); Aliviadero en forma de flor de campanilla (morning glory spillway); Armadura reforzada en x ( x-braced frame);

Naval engineering Seno de vela (belly); Percha (spar); Nudo de rizo (reef knot); Madre (stump); Cabezada (pitch) Ojo de buey (bull’s eye); Rosa de los vientos (wind rose); Pie de gallo (crowfoot); Rascador de nubes (moonraker)

Presa de residuos( tailings); Pala Rizo de cabo (reef line); Rostro de de cuchara (scoop shovel); Taza espolón (beak); Perfil con bulbo del vertedero (bucket); Cabeza de (bulb section); Garganta (swallow) esclusa (lockbay); Tablero (deck)

M e t o n y m y - M e t a p h o r Luz (del puente)(span); Paramento Hocicar (to nose); Entrañas Combination de la presa (apron); Tacón de muro (del barco) (bowels);Rompeolas (heel); Oruga (carterpillar) (breakwater) Table 1. Layers of metaphorization

Metonymy combines meanings from the same semantic domain, one standing for the other (Roldán, Úbeda & Santiago 2009: 85). In our work, we found metonym frequently interacting and sometimes generating metaphor (Goossens 1995). Thus “tablero” refers to a roadway in bridges, but here the metonymy of a material (wood) is historically outdated because currently it is made of steel or concrete. In turn, the meaning in English “deck” evokes a ship’s surface. Some metaphoric examples are derived from a metonymy, such as oruga (carterpillar), a machine evocative of the shape and crawling movement of the insect (cause/ effect). Although luz makes reference to the length of a bridge, a non-literal sense is also involved. The case of entrañas (bowels) (NE) can be understood as a metonymy within a metaphor (Deignan and Potter 2004:1241); the part/whole contiguity relation is subsumed with a non-literal sense designating the inner part of the ship where the engine room is located.

Conceptual mapping diversity Following conceptual metaphor theory we judged important to test out the embodied origin of the data. One of the main tenets of embodiment theory is that source domains have experiential basis and that target

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domains are abstract as in the LOVE IS A JOURNEY metaphor (Lakoff and Johnson 1980). This implies unidirectionality and transferring features from bodily experienced source domains onto abstract target domains. Recent research discusses mapping unidirectionality claiming that source and target domains can vary and do not respond to a fixed pattern (Boeiblan forthcoming). Our data support this view, we identified a number of concrete onto concrete, abstract to abstract and sensorimotor experience-based mappings. Table 2 includes some examples from 32 conceptual mappings found in Spanish. The procedure followed consisted of first identifying lexical units as metaphoric and then analyzing them to determine if they were linguistic realizations of conceptual metaphor. Obviously, quite a few examples did not satisfy this condition. Although some mappings could be common in English, particularly those bodily grounded, others are language and culture specific.

LAS TÉCNICAS DE INGENIERÍA CIVIL SON TERAPIAS Abstract onto abstract

(CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES ARE THERAPIES) (CE) EL AGUA ES UN CAMINO (WATER IS A PATH/WAY) (CE) LOS BARCOS/ LAS MÁQUINAS SON PERSONAS

Concrete onto concrete

auscultación; collarín; calzo; reforzar; armar; resistencia; escudo; inyección; armadura; red; rehabilitación; relajación de esfuerzos; renovación; reparación; sanear; drenaje; recubrimiento; resonancia; renovación; sanear; vida útil; forense; curación; estabilización; monitorización avenida; galería; vía; calle, tramo

buque gemelo; buque cabecea; cabeza; da una cabezada (pitching; plunging); aguja loca

(SHIPS ARE HUMAN) (NE) LAS PARTES DE LAS ESTRUCTURAS SON HUMANAS (PARTS OF BUILDING STRUCTURES ARE HUMAN) (CE)

alma; brazo; cabeza; cuello; mano; vesícula; uña; arteria; boca

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Based on sensorimotor FUNDIR/TRATAR experience METALES ES COCINARLOS (TREATING METALS IS COOKING THEM) (CE/ NE)

Recocido(annealing: se calienta y enfría lentamente); revenido (tempering: tratamiento para aumentar su temple); endurecido (hardened); reblandecimiento; costra superficial; baños; pan de fangos; acero crudo; pan de oro o de plata; plomo agrio; plomo dulce; embutir; acero dulce; acero al horno; hierro colado; cobre fritado; horno; fundir

Table 2. Examples of Spanish conceptual mappings

The mapping typology mentioned above has been applied as shown in table 2. In the case of concrete onto concrete mapping, the domain of water is understood in terms of a path or a way; ships (an artifact made by humans) are understood as human beings and similarly parts of structures are put in human terms. The mapping TREATING METALS IS COOKING THEM compresses two sensorimotor experiences both arising from cause/effect action in the human sphere. On the contrary, relatively abstract realizations such as therapies choice and repairing techniques are mapped in CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES ARE THERAPIES. Fauconnier and Turner (2002, 2008) have proved in conceptual integration theory that the emergent structure that ensues from mapping interactions is cognitively more powerful than input domains (Fauconnier and Turner 2002, Fauconnier and Turner 2008). In this sense, the mapping CIVIL ENGINEERING PROBLEMS ARE MEDICAL PROBLEMS forms part and is embedded in the abovementioned CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES ARE THERAPIES network. This network sustains important concepts and linguistic realizations branching civil engineering communication.

Cross-linguistic differences Due to lack of cross-linguistic correspondence in English and Spanish, we met further lexical difficulties. For example one lexical term in Spanish could have 3 different realizations in English as shown below in figure 1.

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Figure 1. Cross-linguistic correspondence (E-Sp)

This phenomenon seems to respond to cross-cultural reasons, given that English discriminates this concept according to the situation where it takes place. For example “fretting” is used for highways, “scabbing” for walls and “cracking” is more general for beams, concrete, metals, etc. In Spanish where precision is needed, a periphrasis is employed as in fisuración de vigas. In the example below represented in figure 2, a series of semantically linked lexical units asentamiento; silla, “seating” and “chair” needed to be contextualized to ascertain their meaning nuances. They share the common semantic domain “supporting a structure”.

Figure 2. Cross-linguistic correspondence Sp-E

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Asentamiento is contextualized as the vertical movement of the base of a structure and hence translated into English as “settlement”. “Seating” refers to a surface carrying a large load, being equivalent to asiento. Conversely, silla is used in a suspension bridge scenario and its English counterpart is saddle. “Chair” appears in a railways context as a steel fastener between a rail and a sleeper and corresponds to cojinete. As we can see, context, and situational cultural factors help to clarify related semantic senses. This also proves the role of language specific metaphor (Deignan 2004: 1232).

Conclusions This paper has intended to show the ins and outs of identifying metaphor during the preparation of a Spanish/English polytechnic dictionary of metaphors. The followed method entails word usage, contextual evidence, linguistic data and expert advice. Decisions about layers of metaphorization in lexical units were made according to linguistic and cultural variation. We have observed that conceptual mappings in English and Spanish are dissimilar, although bodily grounded mappings do appear in both languages. Image metaphor is highly frequent in both languages and metonym and metaphor are often combined and their boundaries blurred. It is expected that the second part of this study (English/Spanish volume) will shed further light on the use of non-literal language in engineering and other specialized disciplines.

References Baumer, E. et al., (2009). “Computational Metaphor Identification: A Method for Identifying Conceptual Metaphors in Written Text,” Proc. Analogy 09: 20-29.  Blockley, D. (2005). New Dictionary of Civil Engineering. London: Penguin books. Boeiblan, M. (Forthcoming). Reconsideración de los campos semánticamente dependientes e independientes de la metáfora conceptual y su impacto en el marco teórico y práctico sobre la teoría de Embodiment. Forthcoming doctoral thesis. Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Cameron, L. (2007). “Confrontation or complementarity? Metaphor in language use and cognitive metaphor theory”. Annual Review of Cognitive Linguistics: Volume 5: 107-135. Deignan, A. (1995). Collins Cobuild Guides to English 7: Metaphor. London: HarperCollins Publishers.

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Deignan, A. & Potter, L. (2004). “A corpus study of metaphors and metonyms in English and Italian”. Journal of Pragmatics 36: 1231–1252. Deignan, A. (2005). Metaphor and Corpus Linguistics. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing. Delgado Lallemand, L. (2010). Diccionario enciclopédico marítimo Español- Inglés. Madrid: Paraninfo. Fauconnier, G. and M. Turner (2002). The Way We Think: Conceptual Blending and the Mind’s Hidden Complexities. New York: Basic Books. Fauconnier G. & Turner, M. (2008). ‘Rethinking Metaphor’. In Gibbs, R. (Ed.). 53-66. Also available at: http://www.cogsci.ucsd.edu/~faucon/RethinkingMetaphor19f06.pdf (retrieved on 19 September 2012). Forceville, Ch. (2010). “Why and how study metaphor, metonymy, and other tropes in multimodal discourse” in Caballero R. y Pinar M.J. (Eds.). Ways and Modes of Human Communication. Cuenca: Ed. Universidad Castilla-La Mancha. 57 - 77. Gibbs, R. W. (ed.) (2008). Cambridge Handbook of Metaphor and Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Goossens, L. (1995). “Metaphtonymy: the interaction of metaphor and metonymy in figurative expressions for linguistic action” in: Goossens, L., Pauwels, P., Rudzka-Ostyn, B., Simon-Vandenbergen, A.-M., Vanparys, J. (Eds.), By Word of Mouth: Metaphor, Metonymy and Linguistic Action in a Cognitive Context. John Benjamins, Amsterdam. 159–174. IATE database. Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Kövecses, Z. (2000). Metaphor and Emotion. New York and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lakoff, G. & Johnson M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things. What Categories Reveal about

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the Mind. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Lakoff, G. (1993). “The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor” in A. Ortony (Ed.), Metaphor and thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 202 - 251. Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (1999). Philosophy in the Flesh. The Embodied Mind and its Challenge to Western Thought. New York: Basic Books. Lakoff, G. & Núñez, R. (2000). Where mathematics comes from: how the embodied mind brings mathematics into being. New York: Basic Books. Neuman, Y.; Assaf, D.; Cohen, Y.; Last, M.; Argamon, S., et al. (2013). “Metaphor Identification in Large Texts Corpora”. PLoS ONE 8, 4: e62343. Available online: http://www.plosone.org/article/info%25 3Adoi%252F10.1371%252Fjournal.pone.0062343 (Retrieved 8 July 2013). Pragglejaz Group. (2007). “MIP: A method for identifying metaphorically used words in discourse”. Metaphor and Symbol 22: 1-39. Roldan-Riejos, A.; Úbeda Mansilla, P. & Santiago Lopez, J. (2011). The Language of Architecture and Civil Engineering. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishers. Steen, G. J. (2007). Finding Metaphor in Grammar and Usage. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. The Metaphor Analysis Project, Lynne Cameron, PI. Milton-Keynes, UK. http://creet.open.ac.uk/projects/ metaphor-analysis/procedure.cfm?subpage=discourse-data (Retrieved on 17th December 2011).

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A critical analysis of religious metaphor in the discourse of conservative political ideology María Antonia Urquía Muñoz Universidad Rey Juan Carlos

Abstract This paper provides an analysis of political conservative ideology, based on the framework of conceptual metaphor theory developed by Lakoff and Johnson (1980, 1999).Our main objective is to show that religious, war and biblical conceptual metaphors, amongst others, are powerful due to the fact that they can outline, build and conceptualize political ideology in target communities.

Keywords: Cognitive linguistics, conceptual metaphor in political and religious discourse, conservative ideology.

Análisis crítico de las metáforas de religión en el discurso político de ideología conservadora

Resumen Este trabajo ofrece un análisis crítico del discurso político conservador basado en la teoría de la metáfora conceptual desarrollada por Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M. (1980,1999). El objetivo de este trabajo es mostrar que las metáforas conceptuales de religión, de la guerra y bíblicas, entre otras son poderosas porque moldean, reflejan y conceptúan una determinada ideología política en determinadas comunidades. Palabras Clave: Lingüística cognitiva, metáfora conceptual en el discurso político y religioso, ideología conservadora.

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Introduction The main purpose of this paper is to confirm that the conceptualization and understanding of conservative moral and political discourse from a Christian perspective can be partly revealed through the qualitative analysis of conceptual metaphors and metaphorical expressions. The analysis of the metaphorical expressions and conceptual metaphor is based on the cognitive semantic approach developed by Lakoff and Johnson (1980, 1999). The studied corpus which is: Saving America. A Christian Perspective of the Tea Party Movement, (2012) whose author is Jonathan Wakefield, is based on the principles of Tea party, which is an American conservative political movement that sprang in 2009. Their ideology is deeply rooted in economic liberalism, traditional values and a constitutionally limited government. Moreover, the main target audience of the publication is as Wakefield (2012) states in the dedication of his book are “all decent Americans who are yet to learn that politicians from both major political parties have spent decades erecting a power structure so big and corrupt that We the people will soon be helpless to stop it.”

Analysis of metaphorical language All the metaphorical expressions included in the analysis are underlined and each example quoted is followed by the page, within brackets, in which these expressions appear in the above mentioned corpus.

Journey metaphors Lakoff and Turner (1989) claim that according to Judeo-Christian religion we instantly understand that God is a guide and there are alternative paths of good and evil through life. The Journey metaphor in the religious, ethical and political context of the studied corpus is based on the dichotomy between what the author, Jonathan Wakefield (2012), considers virtuous or immoral. Journey metaphors are based on the Path Schema described by Johnson (1987:113) which has the following parts: “(1) a source or starting point; (2) a goal, or endpoint and (3) a sequence of communicable locations connecting the source with the goal. Regarding the achievement of goals, Semino (2008:97) argues that “Path image Schema can bring about very specific and elaborate metaphorical scenario such as the opposition between forward and backward movement.” The following metaphorical expression, which is an instance of the religious journey metaphor:

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REPENTANCE IS TURNING BACK, highlights that turning back, which in this case entails backward movement, implies choosing a, better and less fearsome destination: 1. I don´t think it´s too late though. I think God is giving us a final choice -maybe our final one- to repent and turn back from that governmental graveyard of oppression. (194) The following metaphorical expressions portrayed in examples 2 and 3, evoke the Christian perspective that God grants us the freedom to choose our own paths, i.e. to choose right from wrong: 2. We have always had a choice. God designed it though he knew we would more often choose evil over good. (18) 3. Limited government, by contrast, has no such power: Major constraints on government allow freedom to flourish. Ideally, people who live under the maximum freedom reasonably possible- freedom to choose their own paths, and for a Christian as God has pre-ordained it. (20). The author of the chosen corpus states that he is an evangelical Christian. (2012:11). In chapter 1, under the heading a Surprising Journey to Faith, Wakefield uses two metaphors that evoke the conceptual metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY. On the one hand, the metaphorical expression in example 4 underlies the conceptual metaphor SPRIRITUAL LIFE IS GOING ON A JOURNEY: 4. When I was 22, I crossed from death to life (2). And on the other hand, the following metaphorical expression is an instance of the conceptual metaphor EXPERIENCING FAITH IS GOING ON A JOURNEY. 5. I traveled an unexpected and reluctant path to faith, marked with questions, doubts, and fierce resistance (2)

Moral Bounds metaphor Closely related to the Journey metaphor is the Moral Bounds metaphor. Lakoff & Johnson (199:304) hold: According to the Moral Bounds metaphor:”Immoral action is seen as a motion outside of the permissible range, as straying from a prescribed path or transgressing prescribed boundaries.”

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Furthermore, “deviant” behavior is immoral because it moves in unsanctioned areas and towards unsanctioned destinations. The lexical evidence portrayed in example 6, is an instance of the Moral Bounds metaphor: 6. A few years ago, I knew America had major problems, but I was completely ignorant of just how far we´d strayed from our basic and founding principles.(xxv)

Building Metaphors As Goatly (2007:190) points out: The prototypically stable man-made structures are buildings, since in order for a building to survive, it should not move. It is not, therefore surprising that states and organizations are also conceptualized as building, to stress their stability and durability. The following metaphorical expression in example 7 highlights the sturdiness of a building. Free market values, which are one of the main tenants of Tea Party principles, are valued positively, due to the fact that they are conceptualized as a solid and stable foundation for a productive economy. 7. Allowing free market principles to be the foundation upon which a nation´s entire economy is built fosters the most productive society possible. (95). Nevertheless, the lexical evidence of instability is provided as follows: 8. We can either go down the path toward oppressive government rule (building our national house on the sand), or we can reverse back toward the liberties he originally gave us (building our national house on the Rock). (13) In the above-mentioned example, two metaphors are nestled: a building metaphor with biblical connotations and a journey metaphor.With reference to the journey metaphor based on the Path schema, the choice of a path is connected either to the instability of a foundation (sand) or the stability of a foundation (Rock). Unlimited government is thus conceptualized negatively.

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Power metaphors The accumulation of power is a major concern for the author and for the members of Tea Party who believe, as I mentioned before, in a constitutionally limited government. The Tea Party Patriots webpage (2013) defines a constitutionally limited government as follows: Constitutionally limited government means power resides with the people and not with the government. Governing should be done at the most local level possible where it can be held accountable. America’s founders believed that government power should be limited, enumerated, and constrained by our Constitution. The metaphorical expressions found in the three following examples provide grounding for the POWER IS RESOURCE metaphor due to the fact that as Lakoff & Johnson´s (1980) explain, power like a resource can be acquired, transacted and managed. Moreover, they are coherent with the conceptual metaphor POWER IS A DESIRED COMMODITY: 9. And what does the government do with all the power it has usurped? (58) 10. But sadly, as we have allowed government to accumulate power over time, politicians have flipped the structure, so that our (non) representatives are now in control of We the People: (xxiv). Moreover, the accumulation of power is also conceptualized disapprovingly via religious metaphor. The metaphorical expression depicted in the example 11, underlines the conceptual metaphor SHUNNING THE DESIRE FOR POWER IS WORSHIPPING GOD: 11. but Jesus affirms it in his response to Satan, implying that shunning the desire for power was in fact, worshipping God. (28) Whereas, the next example reveals the conceptual metaphor SEEKING POWER FOR POWER SAKE IS WORSHIPING THE EVIL ONE: 12. Notice that Satan, not God, rules the “Kingdoms of the world: Those who seek power for power sake- as the BGDs are doing through their advancing of big centralized government- are seeking after and worshipping the Evil One.(28) BGD is as Wakefield (2012:19) states: “an acronym for Big Government Disciples. Moreover, Big Government is a term used by the Tea Party to depict a government that they regard to be extremely large

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and inappropriately involved in certain areas of public and private sectors.” Those who advocate for a Big government are therefore conceptualized as worshippers of the devil. War metaphors War metaphors play a crucial role in political and religious discourse, especially in the Old Testament. Different source domains e.g. weapons, battles, attack are mapped onto target domains such as tax codes, individual rights and income tax amendments. As in any war there are also enemies and attackers in the political arena and values that need to be defended such as the values of a limited government and economic freedom which are essential for Tea party members.” The lexical evidence found in the following examples is an instance of the conceptual metaphor BIG GOVERNMENT IS GOD´S ENEMY. 13. Big Government is God´s enemy. (55) 14. This is truly a David vs. Goliath battle. The BGD giant rattles on earth as it stomps forward, wielding its financial two-handed sword against the little Tea party who clutches its slingshot of patriotism. (196) The metaphorical expression mentioned in example 14, is very rich and is based on the domain of a biblical story. The Big Government Disciples are conceptualized as Goliath, the giant, and the members of Tea Party are conceptualized as David who fought the giant with a slingshot, and eventually managed to kill the giant with the giant´s sword. The reduction of government tax regulation is considered pivotal to the author, Jonathan Wakefield. In the following examples the source domain of weapons is mapped on to the target domain of taxes. Moreover, the use of the lexeme bazooka in example 16, adds more pragmatic weight. 15. Using the tax code to their advantage is one of BGDs´ most powerful weapons against We the people, but we could take it all away in one shot by implementing the Fair Tax. (101) 16. Along with this, we should repeal the Amendment that legalized thievery in the form of income tax in the first place. It was ratified only a few years after Roosevelt´s “New Nationalism” speech and became a bazooka in the BGDs´ arsenal to fight the war among classes.(101) Individual rights and economic freedom are also conceptualized as subject to attack and brutal assault as

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revealed in the following metaphorical expressions: 17. The idea of individual rights is under constant attack to advance the good of the collective, a concept foreign to our founding documents. The push for nationalized health care is a clear example.(26) 18. But economic freedom has been under brutal assault in America.(92) Defense metaphors are important to emphasize that limited government needs to be defended because it is a resistance against tyranny and oppression. The following metaphorical expression is a clear example of this. 19...but if I were to ask you to name the Christian organizations that address the issues of limited government (a defense against tyranny and oppression). (11)

Strict Father Family metaphor Lakoff & Johnson (1999) provide an in-depth analysis of the Strict Father and Nurturant Parent models highlighting that each of these models have their own distinctive morality. In the Strict Father model as Lakoff & Johnson (1999:318) state: The father is the parent and for most religious believers, God the Father is the ultimate moral authority, the absolutely all-powerful and Perfect being who established moral order, is the source of all moral law, and who punishes immorality and rewards moral behaviour. The following metaphorical expressions are instances of the Strict Father Family metaphor: 20. We can look past to see that people who turn from God suffer the consequences sometimes unimaginably severe. (193) 21. He is doing something monumental, and he´s asking all his children to make a choice right now about the direction of our country. (13) 22. Because America has increasingly ignored God as our King, we have replaced him with our own earthy Kings (190)

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Moral Strength metaphor The metaphor of Moral Strength is as Lakoff & Johnson (1999) explain coherent with the Strict Father Model, due to the fact that self discipline is the moral fiber of this model. However, moral weakness is a type of immorality. People who are morally weak tend to fall, to yield to evil and carry out immoral acts. As the above-mentioned scholars (1999:299) state: “the metaphor of Moral Strength consists of both the strength to maintain an upright and balanced moral posture and also the strength to overcome evil forces.” Lakoff & Johnson (1999) highlight that Being Immoral Is Being Low. Therefore, moving from a position of morality (uprightness) to a position of immorality (being low) entails that Doing Evil Is Falling. The metaphorical expressions revealed in the examples 23 and 24, are realizations of the DOING EVIL IS FALLING metaphor. Notwithstanding, they evoke the biblical domain of the fall from grace. 23. The problem with that view is that man is not perfectible on this Earth. He is fallen and will remain so until death or Jesus´ return. (31) 24. And because we are all fallen creatures, our natural inclination is tragically toward self-destruction (or sin). (18)

Ontological Personification Metaphor As we can see in the following examples human characteristics are mapped onto nonhuman entities. Semino (2008:101) argues that “personification is a particularly important and pervasive type of metaphor since it involves the use of our experience and knowledge.” The lexical evidence provided in the following examples underlines the ontological metaphor THE CONSTITUTION IS A PROTECTOR: 25. The Constitution protects against over-consolidation of power. (28) 26. The Constitution protects us against the evils of Big government. (28) On the other hand, the lexical evidence in this next example underlines the conceptual metaphor of personification THE TEA PARTY IS THE GUARDIAN OF FREEDOM: 27. No matter what people say about us and try to do to us, we must remain the guardians of everyone´s liberty, including those who don´t have any understanding of what true liberty is. (186)

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However, Big government is conceptualized negatively via the lexical evidence provided: 28. Big Government can and will bully, oppress and destroy the lives of those who stand in its way.(19)

Conclusions The analysis of conceptual metaphors shows that metaphors frame problems and situations by focusing attention to some aspects while concealing others. Big Government is as Wakefield puts it is God´s and Tea Party´s enemy. Therefore, the perception of the peril and threat of a government that is not constitutionally limited are encapsulated in a complex metaphorical network that includes the domain of war, morality, religion, journey, and the instability of a building. Moreover, Lakoff & Johnson´s( 1999) Strict Family model interprets and constructs the conservative and capitalist ideology of the Tea Party movement from a Christian perspective.

References Goatly, A. (2007). Washing the Brain Metaphor and Hidden Ideology. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Johnson, M. (1987). The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination and Reason. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Lakoff, G. / Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Lakoff, G. / Johnson, M. (1999). Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and its Challenge to Western Thought. New York: Basic Books. Lakoff, G. / Turner, M. (1989). More than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Semino, E. (2008). Metaphor in Discourse. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wakefield, J. (2012). Saving America: A Christian Perspective of the Tea Party Movement. Mississippi: Crossover Publications: LLC.

XII Congreso AELFE (2013) Electronic references Tea Party Patriots (2013). “Tea Party Patriots Mission Statement and Core Values”. URL: http://www. teapartypatriots.org/about/ [05/23/2013]

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IX. TERMINOLOGY AND LEXICOLOGY / TERMINOLOGÍA Y LEXICOLOGÍA

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La función comunicativa de los neologismos: caracterización a partir de criterios basados en el uso Elisabet Llopart Saumell, Judit Freixa Aymerich Institut Universitari de Lingüística Aplicada Universitat Pompeu Fabra (Barcelona)

Resumen A principios del siglo pasado Tappolet (1916) propuso la distinción entre préstamos necesarios y préstamos “de lujo”. También Guilbert, en su obra fundamental de 1975, retomó y actualizó esta distinción aplicada a la neología léxica: neologismos denominativos y neologismos estilísticos. En las últimas décadas, sin embargo, no se ha avanzado mucho en los criterios para objetivar esta dicotomía. El objetivo principal del presente artículo es establecer una plantilla metodológica con una serie de parámetros e indicadores que, de acuerdo con la bibliografía sobre neología, nos permita clasificar los neologismos en un mismo eje según sus características referenciales, en un extremo, e inherentemente expresivas, en el otro. En esta línea, los parámetros utilizados en el análisis son principalmente lingüísticos basados en el uso. Con esta propuesta se pretende avanzar en la caracterización de los neologismos más allá del criterio lexicográfico normalmente utilizado para la identificación de neologismos porque, aunque la metodología es coherente, los resultados que proporciona son limitados. Por este motivo, Cabré (2009: 7) afirma que a la hora de considerar si una unidad léxica es neológica se debería intentar “matizar el carácter absoluto del criterio de exclusión lexicográfico utilizado hasta ahora”. Palabras clave: neología, neologicidad, creatividad lingüística, neologismo denominativo, neologismo estilístico.

Abstract Communicative function of neologisms: characterization based on their use

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At the beginning of the last century, Tappolet (1916) stated the difference between necessary loanwords and luxury loanwords. Guilbert followed and revised this distinction in his fundamental work of 1975 by applying it to lexical neology: denominative neologisms and stylistic neologisms. In these last decades, however, little progress has been achieved in establishing objective criteria to distinguish this dichotomy. The main goal of this article was to establish a methodological template based on a series of parameters and filters that, following the existing bibliography on neology, allow us to classify the neologisms on an axis where neologisms with denotative characteristics are placed on one side, and inherently expressive neologisms on the other. These two parameters for the analysis are linguistic, based on their use. The purpose of this study was to offer advance in the characterization of neologisms beyond the lexicographic criterion that is usually used to identify neologisms since, despite the coherence of the methodology, the results are limited. For this reason, Cabré (2009: 7) states that in order to consider whether a lexical unit is neological, the lexicographic exclusion criterion used until now should be revised.

Key Words: neology, neologicity, linguistic creativity, denominative neologism, stylistic neologism.

Introducción Como es bien sabido, de los tres criterios que menciona Rey (1976) para establecer el carácter neológico de una unidad, en el trabajo aplicado el más utilizado es el lexicográfico. Este criterio establece un corpus de exclusión formado por determinados diccionarios y se considera que todas las unidades léxicas no recogidas en este corpus son neológicas. Aunque el criterio lexicográfico aporta una metodología coherente de trabajo en neología, los resultados que proporciona son limitados. Como afirma Cabré (2009: 7), a la hora de considerar si una unidad léxica es neológica se debería intentar “matizar el carácter absoluto del criterio de exclusión lexicográfico utilizado hasta ahora”, ya que de acuerdo con los criterios de introducción de nuevas palabras al diccionario hay unidades con un alto uso entre los hablantes que nunca llegan a incorporarse en obras lexicográficas. Por ejemplo, dialectalismos, términos de especialidad o unidades predictibles. Además, choca con el criterio psicolingüístico, que hace referencia a la intuición lingüística de los hablantes, es decir, unidades consideradas neológicas porque no se documentan en el diccionario, los hablantes no las consideran nuevas.

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El objetivo de este estudio es avanzar en la caracterización de los neologismos más allá del criterio lexicográfico. Con este propósito, vamos a partir de la función comunicativa de los neologismos para analizar los rasgos que caracterizan las palabras que no están documentadas en los principales diccionarios de referencia. Según esta función, entre todos los neologismos que se crean en una comunidad lingüística existen neologismos denominativos y neologismos estilísticos.

Conceptos sobre neología denominativa y neología estilística Autores, como Dauzat (1943), Guilbert (1975) y Guiraud (1971) (citados por Sablayrolles, 1993: 59) han hecho referencia a estos dos conceptos, y en la mayoría de casos los han relacionado entre sí en forma de categorías explícitamente opuestas, es decir, como una dicotomía de la función neológica. A principios del siglo pasado Tappolet (1916) propuso la distinción entre préstamos necesarios y préstamos “de lujo”. De acuerdo con Guilbert (1975) y Cabré (1989), a grandes rasgos y en forma de síntesis, la neología denominativa se caracteriza por cumplir una función comunicativa referencial, adecuarse al referente que designa, utilizar recursos de formación comunes y productivos, y adquirir una frecuencia de uso considerable. Y, contrariamente, la neología estilística se caracteriza por tener una función expresiva y connotativa, ya que intenta mostrar la visión personal del autor y captar la atención del lector; por ello utiliza formas no productivas y poco comunes, porque la finalidad es jugar con las palabras y ser originales, por tanto, son neologismos efímeros.

Metodología En este apartado indicamos la base de datos en la cual se basa el presente artículo, así como los datos de análisis y la propuesta metodológica.

Referencias: base de datos Para la elaboración de este trabajo basado en el análisis de los neologismos de prensa en catalán utilizaremos el banco de datos del Observatori de Neologia (OBNEO). El Observatori es un grupo de investigación del Institut Universitari de Lingüística Aplicada de la Universitat Pompeu Fabra (Barcelona) que a partir

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del vaciado de textos escritos de periódicos y revistas, y de textos orales de radio construye un corpus de neología de gran difusión en catalán y en castellano de acuerdo con el criterio lexicográfico y una metodología propia de trabajo en neología (Observatori de Neologia, 2004). Con el objetivo de matizar el criterio lexicográfico y avanzar en el concepto clave del trabajo en neología, el Observatori de Neologia llevó a cabo un estudio para establecer grados de neologicidad de acuerdo con diferentes filtros de tipo documental (Cabré y Estopà, 2009). De esta forma se evidencia que entre todas las palabras usadas en la prensa y no registradas en el diccionario se pueden observar unidades más o menos nuevas. En el presente estudio analizamos los neologismos desde otro punto de vista: su función comunicativa. Por este motivo, partimos de la bibliografía sobre neología denominativa y neología estilística. De acuerdo con las descripciones que se han utilizado para describir ambos conceptos, hemos aislado parámetros basados en el uso que nos permitan identificar las características relativas a estas nociones como, por ejemplo, la frecuencia, pero también el grado de especialidad. En este punto, cabe tener en cuenta que las unidades léxicas que entran en el diccionario son en su mayoría denominativas, mientras que los neologismos estilísticos acostumbran a ser efímeros, de manera que no se recogen en las obras lexicográficas. De aquí la importancia de tener en cuenta las motivaciones que rigen la creación de neologismos.

Datos de análisis Para realizar este análisis hemos extraído los neologismos de tipo formal recogidos en el banco de datos del Observatori de Neologia y publicados en periódicos en catalán entre el 2010 y el 2012. A partir de estos primeros datos hemos recuperado de forma aleatoria 100 unidades para cada uno de los siete procesos de formación que vamos a analizar: • Composición culta • Composición patrimonial • Prefijación • Sufijación • Sintagmación

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• Abreviación • Acronimia

Propuesta metodológica Los parámetros e indicadores utilizados para analizar los neologismos serán los siguientes. Para empezar, el análisis se realizará a partir de dos criterios diferentes. Primero, aplicaremos un criterio denominado de necesidad y, a continuación, un criterio de uso.

Criterio de necesidad En relación con el criterio de necesidad, se suele considerar que la neología estilística no tiene un uso funcional, sino expresivo, y que la denominativa tiene más posibilidades de vehicular conocimientos de especialidad. Por este motivo, hemos tomado el parámetro especialización como un valor a tener en cuenta para determinar la función de los neologismos. Los dos indicadores utilizados tienen características diferentes, pero ambos son útiles para saber si los neologismos se refieren al conocimiento del mundo, es decir, a la realidad extralingüística que nos rodea. Por un lado, el Cercaterm del TERMCAT almacena términos de especialidad y, en el otro, la Viquipèdia ofrece conocimiento enciclopédico. En cuanto al análisis cuantitativo, si las unidades se documentan en ambos indicadores obtienen 2 puntos, si solo se encuentran en uno de ellos reciben 1 punto y si no se documentan en ninguno reciben 0 puntos.

Criterio de uso En lo que respecta al criterio de uso, el parámetro utilizado es la frecuencia, ya que, en general, una frecuencia más elevada indica que la unidad disfruta de una mayor difusión en la lengua, mientras que una frecuencia baja puede indicar que se trata de un neologismo efímero y, por tanto, no estrictamente necesario. En este caso, tenemos en cuenta los siguientes indicadores: la base de datos del Observatori de Neologia (BOBNEO) y Google Scholar. En el primero caso, dado que todos los neologismos se documentan en

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este indicador porque es el corpus de procedencia, valoramos si se han recogido una sola vez o se han documentado dos o más veces. En el segundo caso, apuntamos si se documenta o no en este buscador más restringido que la web en general. Finalmente, hemos optado por añadir dos corpus más, uno lexicográfico y una interfaz textual, el Diccionari català-valencià-balear (DCVB) de Alcover y Moll, y el Corpus Textual Informatitzat de la Llengua Catalana (CTILC), ambos no actualizados. Sabemos que determinadas unidades se han considerado neológicas porque no se documentan en los diccionarios de referencia pero hace décadas que son utilizados en la lengua, ya que son dialectalismos. Finalmente, para el análisis cuantitativo del criterio de uso, los neologismos se han buscado en los cuatro indicadores mencionados (BOBNEO, Google Scholar, DCVB y CTILC), de manera que pueden obtener hasta 4 puntos si se documentan todas las fuentes o 0 si no se documentan en ninguna.

Análisis y resultados Después de aplicar esta plantilla a los 100 neologismos de los 7 procesos de formación no documentados en los diccionarios de referencia en catalán y registrados en la prensa hemos obtenido los siguientes resultados cuantitativos.

Criterio de necesidad De la tabla siguiente queremos destacar que tanto los neologismos formados por composición culta como los formados por sintagmación muestran datos por encima de la media, ya que casi la mitad (45 en el caso de la composición culta) o más de la mitad de las unidades (68 para la sintagmación) se encuentran registradas en las fuentes consultadas. En cambio, en los demás procesos los porcentajes son inferiores. En la cola destacan las palabras formadas por truncación, la acronimia y la abreviación, y por prefijación, ya que en estos casos menos del 20 % de los neologismos se han podido documentar en los indicadores. Los resultados coinciden con Cabré (1989), que afirma que las estructuras como la sintagmación y la composición culta son mecanismos que destacan para vehicular neologismos de tipo denominativo.

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C. culta

Comp.

Pref.

Suf.

Sintag.

Abrev.

Acron.

necesidad 2 puntos

13

6

1

4

20

0

0

1 punto

32

23

17

25

48

5

5

0 puntos

55

71

82

71

32

22

28

TOTAL

45 %

29 %

18 %

29 %

68 %

15 %

19 %

Tabla 1. Resultados del análisis cuantitativo con el criterio de necesidad (Cercaterm y Viquipèdia)

Para hacernos una idea de cuáles son las unidades no documentadas en los diccionarios generales de referencia, pero registradas en este tipo de obras, mencionamos los neologismos que han obtenido 2 puntos. Ninguno de los formados por truncación se encuentra en esta lista.

Formación composición

Neologismos autoajuda (autoayuda), neurociència (neurociencia), psicosocial,

Nº 13

culta composición

videovigilància (videovigilancia) aparcacotxes (aparcacoches), càmera web (cámara web), hora vall (hora

6

patrimonial prefijación sufijación sintagmación

valle), zona euro extravehicular agregador, salafista, monista, dessalinitzador (desalinizador) alta costura, escalfament global (calentamiento global), serveis mínims

1 4 20

(servicios mínimos), xarxa social (red social) Tabla 2. Neologismos que han obtenido 2 puntos de acuerdo con el criterio de necesidad

Y, en el otro extremo, añadimos algunos ejemplos de neologismos no documentados en ninguna de las dos fuentes mencionadas.

Formación composición

Neologismos cibertropa, feixistoide (fascistoide), petromonarca, telefàgia (telefagia)

Nº 45

culta composición

avi cangur (abuelo canguro), iaioflauta (yayoflauta), moto bomba,

71

patrimonial prefijación

tuiteraddicte (tuiteradicto) antitot (antitodo), neobohèmia (neobohemia), pseudoaliment

82

sufijación

(pseudoalimento), superestrella culpabilitzador (culpabilizador), festivaler (festivalero), ideologitzar

32

(ideologizar), tronista

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actiu tòxic (activo tóxico), cinturó metropolità (cinturón metropolitano),

22

abreviación

patata calenta (patata caliente), prova de foc (prueba de fuego) esquizo (esquizofrénico), físio (fisioterapeuta), indepe (independetista),

22

acronimia

multiculti (multicultural) burquini (burka + biquini), hacktivista (hacker + activista), sociovergent

28

(socialista + convergente), webisodi (web + episodio)

Tabla 3. Neologismos que han obtenido 0 puntos de acuerdo con el criterio de necesidad

Criterio de uso En lo que respecta a los resultados a partir del criterio de uso, a continuación podemos ver las cifras por puntuación y tipo de formación. En este caso el porcentaje de neologismos documentados en uno de los indicadores aumenta, ya que se sitúa como mínimo en el 70 % porque existen más fuentes y son menos restrictivas (corpus de periódicos, corpus web, etc.). Así pues, vemos que en este caso ya no destaca la composición culta, pero los sintagmáticos continúan situándose en un extremo, ya que el 97 % de estas unidades está documentada o bien se documenta más de una vez en el banco de datos del OBNEO. En cambio, en el otro extremo continuamos encontrando la acronimia junto con la composición patrimonial. Según estudios de Estopà (2010) la composición patrimonial un fenómeno de creación que va a la baja en lengua catalana y estas cifras dejan entrever la situación que menciona la autora.

Criterio uso

C. culta

Comp.

Pref.

Suf.

Sintag.

Abrev.

Acron.

4 puntos

1

0

0

4

2

0

0

3 puntos

20

17

31

32

31

6

1

2 puntos

45

31

42

39

52

17

9

1 punto

21

22

17

12

12

2

13

0 puntos

13

30

10

13

3

2

10

TOTAL

87 %

70 %

90 %

87 %

97 %

93 %

70 %

Tabla 4. Resultados del análisis cuantitativo con el criterio de uso (BOBNEO, Google Scholar, DCVB, CTILC)

De acuerdo con los resultados del criterio de uso, a continuación (tabla 5) mostramos algunos ejemplos con una puntuación alta (3 puntos) y, en la tabla 6, presentamos neologismos no documentados en los cuatro

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Formación composición

Neologismos Nº audiologia (audiología), cardiorespiratori (cardiorespiratorio), micropolítica, 20

culta composición

sociolaboral cançó protesta (canción protesta), futbol base, migcentre (mediocentro),

17

patrimonial prefijación

socialcristià (socialcristiano) anticapitalista, postbèl·lic (postbélico), reenviar, ultracatòlic (ultracatólico)

31

sufijación

federalitzar (federalizar), inclusivitat (inclusividad), propositiu

32

sintagmación

(propositivo), revisable alta costura, concert econòmic (concierto económico), primer equip (primer

31

abreviación

equipo), via ràpida (vía rápida) contra (contraataque), crono (cronómetro), mani (manifestación), masoca

6

acronimia

(masoquista) protagònic (protagonista + antagónico)

1

Tabla 5. Neologismos que han obtenido 3 puntos de acuerdo con el criterio de uso

Formación composición

Neologismos cibertropa, gamberroide, simpsonmania (simpsonmanía), telegàgia

Nº 13

culta composición

(telefagia) caçamonstres (cazamonstruos), calçotets bomba (calzoncillos bomba),

30

patrimonial prefijación

pixapiles (meapilas), xuclasaldos (chupasaldos) afutbolístic (afutbolístico), multicàrrecs (multicargos), semitolerar,

10

sufijación

ultraexpansiu (ultraexpansivo) caspisme (caspismo), grecificació (grecificación), hongaresitat

13

sintagmación

(hungaresidad), transformejar (transformear) abisme fiscal (abismo fiscal), col·locació accelerada (colocación acelerada),

3

abreviación acronimia

onze de garanties (once de garantías) ezquizo (esquizofrénico), expa (expatriado) apliservei (aplicación + servicio), covard-gent (cobarde + convergente),

2 10

merdrid (mierda + Madrid), poetuit (poema + tuit) Tabla 6. Neologismos que han obtenido 0 puntos de acuerdo con el criterio de uso

Contraste de criterios Finalmente, presentamos un contraste de los resultados obtenidos a partir del criterio de necesidad y el criterio de uso para ver si la puntuación coincide o si estos criterios nos muestran rasgos distintos de los

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Como presentamos en la tabla 7, si partimos de los resultados del criterio de necesidad, observamos que los neologismos que obtienen algún punto de acuerdo con este criterio también obtienen una puntuación alta con los indicadores del criterio de uso. Es decir, desde este punto de vista los datos son coincidentes. Pero si seguimos este mismo proceso a la inversa, y partimos de los neologismos con una puntuación alta de acuerdo con el criterio de uso, no ocurre lo mismo, ya que algunas unidades no se documentan ni en el Cercaterm ni en la Viquipèdia. Por esa misma razón, algunos neologismos que no obtienen ningún punto con el criterio de necesidad, obtienen una puntuación alta con el criterio de uso, ya que se han recogido más de una vez en el banco de datos del Observatori y se documentan en Google Scholar. Para terminar, sí que podemos afirmar que aquellos neologismos que obtienen 0 puntos con el criterio de uso, tampoco se documentan con el criterio de necesidad, lo cual es coincidente.

C r i t e r i o Criterio uso necesidad + +

-

+

-

-

Neologismos aiguagim (agua + gimnasio), copagament (copago), internacionalitzador (internacionalizador), moble bar (mueble bar), videovigilància (videovigilancia) feixistoide (facistoide), iaioflauta (yayoflauta), patata calenta (patata caliente), sado (sadomasoquismo), superestrella, tronista burquini (burka + biquini), esquizo (esquizofrénico), gamberroide (gamberroide), ultraexpansiu (ultraexpansivo), rebentaacudits (revientachistes)

Tabla 7. Contraste de los resultados del criterio de necesidad y el criterio de uso

En la tabla también exponemos algunos ejemplos para ilustrar los diferentes resultados. Como vemos, en el primer caso, los neologismos con puntuación alta de acuerdo con ambos criterios son unidades conocidas que podríamos calificar de denominativas porque presentan estructuras usuales, son transparentes y frecuentes. En el segundo caso mostramos unidades frecuentes de acuerdo con la el criterio de uso, pero que no se documentan con el criterio de necesidad: se trata de neologismos recientes con una función expresiva. En la última fila presentamos unidades no documentadas en ninguno de los indicadores; aunque se trata de neologismos recientes y expresivos, difiere del caso anterior porque encontramos unidades muy poco comunes. Este grupo y el anterior comparten el hecho que las unidades están formadas prefijos y sufijos expresivos, como super-, ultra- y -oide.

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Conclusiones De acuerdo con los resultados cuantitativos que hemos obtenido, observamos las siguientes conclusiones preliminares. Cuanto a la neología en general, hemos visto que los criterios de necesidad y uso discriminan unidades que no son neológicas aunque no se encuentren documentadas en los principales diccionarios de referencia. Además, observamos que los resultados difieren según el proceso de formación. De forma más específica, si tenemos en cuenta la función comunicativa de los neologismos observamos que algunos procesos de formación prevalecen para desempeñar una función referencial o bien estilística, como en el caso de la sintagmación, por un lado, y la acronimia, en el otro. Finalmente, el contraste de los resultados de ambos criterios muestra que son criterios complementarios. A partir de aquí y para avanzar en este estudio, es necesario aplicar otros criterios que no se basen solamente en el uso, sino que sean de tipo morfológico, como por ejemplo observar la productividad de las unidades, pero también su estabilidad en el tiempo. Finalmente, cabe destacar que será necesario llevar a cabo un análisis cualitativo y específico para cada uno de los procesos.

Bibliografía Alcover, A. M.; Moll, F. de B. (1977). Diccionari català-valencià-balear. Palma de Mallorca: Moll. [en línea]. URL: http://dcvb.iecat.net/ Cabré, M. T. (1989). “La neologia efímera” in Bassot, J. (ed.). Miscel·lània Joan Bastardas 1. Barcelona: Associació Internacional de Llengua i Literatura Catalanes. Publicacions de l’Abadia de Montserrat: 37-58. Cabré, M. T. (2009). “L’Observatori de Neologia: constància i renovació” in Cabré, M. T.; Estopà, R. (ed.). Les paraules noves: criteris per detectar i mesurar els neologismes. Vic: Eumo Universitat. 5-7. Cabré, M. T.; Estopà, R. (ed.) (2009). Les paraules noves: criteris per detectar i mesurar els neologismes. Vic, Barcelona: Eumo, Universitat Pompeu Fabra. Cercaterm. TERMCAT, Centre de Terminologia. [en línea]. URL: http://www.termcat.cat/ca/Cercaterm

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Corpus Textual Informatitzat de la Llengua Catalana. [en línea]. URL: http://ctilc.iec.cat/ Dauzat, A. (1943). Le génie de la langue française. Paris: Payot. Estopà, R. (2010). “La composició patrimonial en català perd representativitat. Estudi d’un corpus de neologismes de premsa i ràdio”. Estudis romànics 32: 125-147. Google Scholar. [en línea]. URL: http://scholar.google.com/schhp?hl=ca Guilbert, L. (1975). La creativité lexicale. Paris: Larousse. Guiraud, P. (1971). “Néologismes littéraires”. La Banque des mots 1: 23-28. Observatori de Neologia (2004). Metodologia de treball en neologia: criteris, materials i processos. Barcelona: Institut Universitari de Lingüística Aplicada; Universitat Pompeu Fabra. URL: http:// www.iula.upf.edu/repositori/04mon008.pdfhttp://www.iula.upf.edu/repositori/04mon008.pdf Rey, A. (1976). “Néologisme: un pseudo-concept?”. Cahiers de lexicologie 28, 1: 3-17. Sablayrolles, J.-F. (1993). “Fonctions des néologismes”. Cahiers du CIEL, Lexique et construction du discours, 53-94. Tappolet, E. (1916). Die alemannischen Lehnwörter in den Mundarten der französischen Schweiz: kulturhistorisch-linguistische Untersuchung. Basel: F. Reinhard. Viquipèdia. L’enciclopèdia lliure. [en línea]. URL: http://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portada

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The Effect of Dialect: Teaching Lexical Variants to Healthcare Professionals Ashley Bennink Universidad de Oviedo

Abstract When considering what terminology to include in language classes for healthcare professionals, it is important not to omit lexical variations between dialects, as they can play a key role in understanding the patient and in providing quality care. Though recent studies reflect this need and the impact of language and cultural barriers on health outcomes and satisfaction, educators are often left with the task of determining how to select this terminology and how to include it in the course material. Furthermore, there are few textbooks that offer a broad range of variants and the medical field lacks a catalog of the most frequent lexical variants, which both make the educator’s task more difficult. In this paper, I first focus on the benefits of teaching lexical variations in language courses for healthcare professionals, specifically using the example of the Latino population and medical Spanish courses in the Southeast region of the United States. Then, I offer some suggestions for how to select this terminology and how to incorporate it within the curriculum.

Key Words: lexis, Spanish, dialect variants, medical discourse, curriculum design

Introduction Over the past few decades, there has been an increase in demand for courses specializing in Spanish for medical professionals in the United States as a result of the growing Spanish-speaking population. These courses have traditionally centered around teaching the standard Spanish medical terminology, as well as the basic grammar and vocabulary needed to carry out the medical interview. However, recent research confirms(1) that medical professionals are still failing to adequately communicate with their Latino patients, and that this difficulty to communicate has a detrimental effect on the quality of care provided and the patient’s health outcomes. One factor contributing to the persistence of communication problems is the

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presence of lexical dialect variants used by patients but excluded in courses offered to medical professionals. This paper presents the importance of teaching these lexical dialect variants to medical professionals and how they can be incorporated into course material.

Importance of teaching lexical dialect variants Communication is an integral part of providing quality medical care. It is the means by which physicians come to understand the patient´s history and current complaint in order to make the most appropriate and accurate decision regarding treatment options. While there are many studies demonstrating the relationship between language and outcomes, only two representative studies will be presented in this paper in order to answer three specific questions: does the language barrier affect quality of care, can it be considered a risk factor for detrimental health outcomes, and does a language barrier exist between Spanish-speaking patients in the United States and their healthcare providers. A study by Timmins (2002), which analyzed several studies conducted between 1990 and 2000 that looked at the effects of the language barrier in the healthcare setting, offer answers to the first two questions. Timmins found that six of the seven studies investigating the assertion that language barrier has a significant detrimental effect on the quality of care provided concluded this statement to be true. Additionally, the analysis revealed that two of the three studies investigating language barrier as a risk factor confirmed the language barrier is a risk factor for adverse medical outcomes. Later, a study by Yeo (2004) responds to the last question of whether a significant language barrier exists in clinic among non-English-speaking Latino patients. This study confirmed that almost half of non-English-speaking Latino patients reported having communication difficulties in their interactions with medical professionals as compared to roughly a quarter of the English-speaking Latino patients. Even though these two studies look at language use in general, an inevitable part of this communication includes dialect variants, which have a similar impact if not understood. Furthermore, a study by Bennink (2013) revealed the considerable frequency of these variants in clinic. However, though everyone speaks in a dialect, not everyone uses lexical variants to the same extent nor is everyone equally able to resolve misunderstandings that can arise, which influence the intelligibility of the patient in clinic. Furthermore, time and access to comprehensive reference materials also play a significant role in the process of coming to understand the patient. Below, these factors are discussed and how they point to an increased importance

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As mentioned, no one uses standard language at all times, though education and experience permit people to use more normative language when in an intercultural setting. As research demonstrates (e.g. State Center of North Carolina, 2010), people of lower socioeconomic status, lower level of education, and a rural upbringing tend to use more dialect variants in inappropriate settings, tend to not be as adept at adjusting their language to match their context, and at times can have difficulty easily resolving misunderstandings that arise due to the use of a regional dialect. Many, though certainly not all, non-English speaking Latino immigrants in the United States fall within this sociocultural and economic status (see Table 1). In clinic, this difficulty in adapting one´s language to their context can often display itself as a patient repeating the exact same word when a physician or interpreter unfamiliar with the variant asks them to say it in another way or to describe it. This places the burden of achieving understanding on the medical professional.

Table 1: Comparison of education and poverty level

A second factor supporting the teaching of dialect variants is the time the medical professional has available for treating the patient. A recent study published in the Journal of General Internal Medicine revealed that in the United States new doctors only have about 8 minutes to spend with each patient on average (Block et al., 2013). Thus, while an understanding can be reached in regards to what the patient wishes to express, this understanding comes at the expense of the limited time available. Therefore, if some of the most common variants are learned, as well as skills to adequately handle misunderstandings, then more time is available for direct patient care. Finally, even if medical professionals refer to a resource, such as a dictionary, when they are unable to understand the patient, they may realize that not all of the common variants can be found easily. This past year, a preliminary study was conducted to discover the lexical dialect variants most frequently employed in clinic (Bennink, 2013). The collected terms were then compared with four dictionaries: Diccionario de la lengua española (Real Academia Española), Diccionario de Americanismos, Diccionario del español usual

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en México and the Southwest Medical Dictionary. This analysis revealed that 90.2% of the terms are not included in some of the dictionaries and some of the terms are not included in any of them(2). Also, all of the textbooks(3) analyzed in the same study either omit variants completely or offer very few. This suggests that many medical professionals are without the education and reference materials necessary to deal with dialect variants in clinic.

Incorporating variants into course material However, despite the demonstrated importance of teaching lexical variants to medical professionals, it would be unrealistic and overwhelming to teach students all known variants. Instead, instructors should be cautious when choosing which terms are presented in class and how they are presented. In this section, an overview of the selection and incorporation of lexical dialect variants into medical Spanish course material will be presented. When selecting lexical variants, instructors should aim to include those that are most profitable and most frequent within the medical field (Vilà Pujol 1994). In this context, profitability refers to those variants that have a greater possible impact on health outcomes, quality of care or overall understanding. For example, variants that describe someone´s hair (e.g. chino: curly haired), though commonly heard in clinic, are not as useful as knowing that cintura not only means “waist” but can also refer to just the lower back. That is to say, the precise location of pain (in the waist versus the lower back), rather than the patient’s hair type, is more likely to affect the doctor´s ability to accurately diagnose the problem or his global understanding of the issue. Unfortunately, selecting vocabulary based on the frequency of use can be problematic because, as of this moment, a comprehensive catalog of the most frequent lexical dialect variants in the healthcare setting does not exist. A survey conducted by Bennink (2013) of the current courses offered in the Southeast region of the United States(4) confirmed that, due to this deficiency, the instructors who taught variants selected them from their own experience, from the experience of those they know, or from the textbook, which, as mentioned earlier, offers little. However, our current research intends to fill this gap. Currently, a preliminary list of variants, along with their perceived frequency of use and region of origin, has been compiled from several medical professionals and interpreters working in the southeastern United States. We plan to continue building and refining this list over the next few years.

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Nonetheless, once instructors have selected the variants, the question remains as to how they should be incorporated into the course materials. In general, it would be unproductive and inefficient to teach these variants in the same way and with the same emphasis as the more standardized terms since they represent two distinct types of vocabulary with two different purposes. Given that variants are colloquial and regionspecific by nature, the professional does not need to be able to produce them (nor should she) but instead only needs to be able to recognize them. This is referred to by Izquierdo Gil (2004) as passive or receptive vocabulary. On the other hand, normative medical terms and the vocabulary necessary to carry out a standard medical interview has the end goal of not only recognition but also production. This type of vocabulary is referred to as active or productive. It is important for instructors to consider the unique purpose of each type of vocabulary and ensure that activities promote their proper use (Izquierdo Gil, 2004 and Taylor, 1990). For example, activities used to learn passive vocabulary should promote the recognition of the term as opposed to the production of it, and as such should always offer the variant as an option. Some examples are multiple choice questions, fill-in the blank using a word bank, and organizing events or ideas based on a recording. In contrast, activities for active vocabulary should require the learner to provide or produce the term on their own. Examples include determining the appropriate word for a given definition, writing a synonym or antonym for a given word according to the context, and fill-in the blank based on a recording(5). Once the variants and the type of activities have been selected, one must consider when to introduce these terms to students. In recent years, various authors(6) have disputed when to teach dialect variants to foreign language learners and to date there is still an apparent lack of consensus. The ideas range from introducing variants starting at the A1 level to waiting until students have reached more advanced levels. To not enter into this debate, this paper will offer methods to integrate this terminology at any level. In general, there are two main methods for presenting dialect variants in the classroom: either simultaneously with their normative counterparts or in a separate didactic unit. The primary advantage to teaching the terms simultaneously is that the connection made between the two words (and thus the acquisition of them both) will be stronger. By learning the words or phrases together, the meaning is reinforced in the learner´s mind. Further, this method does not require a separate didactic unit, which ultimately saves time. Nevertheless, teaching the variant alongside the normative term carries the risk of the learner confusing the two terms or learning the variant instead of the standard term. Lastly, this method does not allow for a clear moment to teach techniques that help students overcome situations in which they are confronted with an unfamiliar word or phrase.

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In the alternative method, a separate didactic unit presents students with many variants covering a range of topics as well as techniques for handling situations in which unknown terms arise. Advantages of this method are that it reduces the possibility of confusion between the variant and the standard term and it creates a space for discussing the use of variants and how to interact with patients who use them often. However, acquisition can be more difficult due to the absence of a connection between the term and the topic it relates to (such as mitra, a variant for “head”, being taught out of the context of parts of the body). Furthermore, this method entails the presentation of a long list of variants which can be overwhelming and demotivating. A final factor is the addition of another didactic unit, which requires that the instructor set aside the appropriate time for its inclusion in the course. Although, while both methods are viable at an advanced level, should one choose to teach dialect variants to beginners, the first method is preferable as it avoids long lists of words which are more likely to overwhelm and demotivate a low level student. Similarly, in order to make the most of a separate didactic unit, the students would ideally need to be able to discuss the terms and participate in role plays in which they practice the skills they are learning, both of which are activities that are difficult for beginners. Nonetheless, the professor should consider the students´ prior learning history. If the students have not previously been exposed to variants, it would be helpful to prepare a separate didactic unit in order to fill in gaps in their knowledge.

Conclusion In conclusion, lexical dialect variants are an important factor in doctor-patient communication and, as such, play a key role in the provision of quality care. For this reason, it is important for instructors to adequately incorporate them into the course materials, so that the students can be familiar with the most frequent and most useful terms they will encounter in clinic without being overwhelmed during the learning process. Unfortunately, there is still a lack of adequate resources needed to develop good course materials since, as of yet, there are no completed studies that offer a corpus of frequent dialect variants in the clinic setting. Our current research aspires to fill this need. Last year, we began using surveys to collect variants used in clinic along with their perceived frequency of use and region of origin, a study that will continue throughout the next couple of years. The initial list has revealed a great lexical variety which motivates us as we continue to research the actual language used in clinic and encourages us to challenge ourselves and other professors to rethink how we incorporate variants into course materials.

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Notes 1. For example: Flores, G. (2006), Partida, Y. (2007), and Young, R. (2005), among others 2. Examples of terms not found include rapiña: severe irritation, jalao: anemia, choco: head and aparato: IUD. 3. Examples of textbooks analyzed include: Harvey (2008), Bongiovanni (2005), and Melston, et al. (2000). 4. Courses analyzed include those offered by Clemson University, University of Tennessee, University of Georgia and East Carolina University, among others. 5. For more examples of activities for each type of vocabulary, see Izquierdo Gil (2000: 645, 648-650). 6. For example: Izquierdo Gil (2000) and Lewis (1993).

References Artschwager Kay, M. (2001). Southwestern Medical Dictionary, 2nd ed., Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. Bennink, A. (2013). “Variaciones dialectales sobre la salud y la enfermedad. Propuesta para la enseñanza de español en el ámbito de la medicina”. Masters Thesis, Universidad de Oviedo. URL: http://digibuo. uniovi.es/dspace/bitstream/10651/17813/6/TFM_Ashley%20Bennink.pdf Block, L., R. Habicht; A. Wu; S. Desai; K. Wang; K. Novello Silva; T. Niessen; N. Oliver & L. Feldman (2013). “In the wake of the 2003 and 2011 duty hours regulations, how do internal medicine interns spend their time”. Journal of General Internal Medicine 28,8: 1042-1047. Bongiovanni, G. (2005). Medical Spanish, 4th ed., Columbus, OH: McGraw-Hill Education. Fernando Lara, L. (dir.) (2000). Diccionario del español usual en México. Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes. URL: http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/45737575101825028299979/ index.htm [23/04/2013]. Flores, G. (2006). “Language barriers to health care in the United States”. The New England Journal of Medicine 355: 229-23.

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Harvey, W. (2008). Spanish for Health Care Professionals, 3rd ed. Hauppauge, NY: Barron´s Educational Series. Izquierdo Gil, Mª C. (2000). “¿Qué variedades léxicas enseñar en el nivel elemental? El caso de adolescentes francohablantes en un marco escolar”. Congreso de ASELE Actas XI 451-460. Izquierdo Gil, Mª C. (2004). “La selección del léxico en la enseñanza del español como lengua extranjera. Su aplicación al nivel elemental en estudiantes francófonos”. Tesis doctoral, Universitat de València. URL: http://www.tdx.cat/handle/10803/9815 [14/05/2013]. Lewis, M. (1993). The lexical approach. London: Language Teaching Publications. Melston, S., M. Spadinger & S. Knab (2000). Spanish for Health Worktext. Boston, MA: Heinle & Hienle Publishers. Partida, Y. (2007). “Language barriers and the patient encounter”. American Medical Association journal of ethics 9,8: 66-571. Real Academia Española (2001): Diccionario de la lengua española, 22nd ed. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe. URL: http://www.rae.es/rae.html State Center for Health Statistics and Office for Minority Health and health and Health Disparities (2010). “North Carolina minority health facts: Hispanics/Latinos”. URL: www.schs.state.nc.us/schs/pdf/ Hispanic_FS_Web_080210.pdf [29/11/2012]. Taylor, L. (1990). Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. Cambridge: Prentice Hall International. Timmins, C. (2002). “The impact of language barriers on the health care of Latinos in the United States: A review of the literature and guidelines for practice”. Journal of Midwifery and Women´s Health 47, 2: 80-96. Vilà Pujol, Mª (1994). “Dialectos, niveles, estilos y registros en la enseñanza del español como lengua extranjera”. Marco ELE 8: 205-216. URL: http://marcoele.com/descargas/expolingua1994_vila.pdf [14/05/2013]. Yeo, S. (2004). “Barriers and access to care”. Annual Review of Nursing Research 22: 59-73.

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Young, R. (2005). “The growing Hispanic population in South Carolina: Trends and issues”. Institute for Public Services and Policy Research. URL: http://www.ipspr.sc.edu/publication/Population%20 In%20SC.pdf [29/11/2012].

X. TRANSLATION / TRADUCCIÓN

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Términos de percepción visual en las notas de cata de vino en inglés y español y sus traducciones al polaco Dra. Bozena Wislocka Breit Universidad Politécnica de Madrid

Resumen La importancia de la fase visual en la cata del vino está reflejada en la extensión de su campo léxico. Los trabajos de Berlin & Kay (1969), Bornstein (2007), o Lucy (2007) demuestran que la plasmación lingüística de la percepción cromática está estrechamente vinculada al idioma y al grado de desarrollo cultural de la sociedad que lo utiliza, de modo que el tecnolecto enológico, aun siendo un lenguaje especializado, también está condicionado culturalmente. Los cuatro corpus de notas de cata (Australia, California, España y Nueva Zelanda) reflejan la conceptualización inherente a la idiosincrasia de la cultura enológica de cada uno de esos países. El objetivo del presente estudio, ha sido el análisis de los diversos descriptores cromáticos presenten en las notas y sus traducciones publicadas en la revista enológica polaca Czas Wina entre los años 2006 y 2010.

Palabras clave: vino, nota de cata, culturema enológico, tecnolecto enológico.

Visual perception terms in English and Spanish wine tasting notes and their translations into Polish.

Abstract The importance of visual phase in wine tasting is mirrored by the extent of its lexical field. The works of Berlin & Kay (1969), Bornstein (2007), or Lucy (2007) reveal that the relation between the chromatic sensory perceptions and their linguistic forms is closely associated with the stage of cultural development of a society and its language, therefore an oenological jargon, even though a specialized language remains culturally conditioned. The four corpuses of tasting notes (Australia, California, Spain and New Zealand)

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reflect the idiosyncrasies specific to conceptualizations inherent to wine culture of each of these countries. The purpose of this paper has been the analysis of diverse chromatic descriptors solutions identified in the original tasting notes and their translations published in the Polish oenological magazine Czas Wina between 2006 and 2010.

Key Words: wine, tasting note, oenological cultureme, winespeak.

Introducción: La percepción visual y la taxonomía cromática En 1858 Gladstone, a raíz del conocido epíteto de Homero acerca “del mar de color vino” (Epi oinopa pontos; Illiada; Canto II), había declarado que la parquedad de términos cromáticos en la obra griega se debía a “that the organ of color and its impressions were but partially developed among Greeks in the heroic age” (Bornstein, 2007: 5). Hoy es sabido que la percepción fisiológica de colores tiene carácter universal, sin embargo, Berlin & Kay (1969) llegaron a definir como básicos once colores diferentes que, según su tesis, surgían al ritmo del desarrollo cultural, desde el binomio blanco y negro, seguidos por los cuatro primarios: rojo, amarillo, verde, y azul, hasta ser completados por cinco secundarios: morado, naranja, marrón, gris y rosa. Los criterios esenciales para que un color fuese considerado primario era la longitud mínima del término (monosílabo y monolexemático) y la ausencia del hiperónimo correspondiente. Tanto la sistematización como los requisitos fueron criticados, o radicalmente rechazados, dado el predominio exclusivo del inglés en la conceptualización del mundo: “But the conviction that one can understand human cognition, and human psychology in general, on the basis of English alone seems shortsighted, if not downright ethnocentric” (Wierzbicka, 1997: 8). La inexistencia de algunos colores y la presencia de otros - véanse los dos lexemas rusos para el azul demuestran que ni siquiera los idiomas europeos comparten todos los colores básicos y que el rango de espectro de un color puede variar, como ocurre con el término purple vs. púrpura vs. purpurowy A similar problem in modern American English is the tendency to consider purple and violet synonymous, as simply red plus blue (r + b): If a distinction were made, purple would be said to be the darker color. In eighteenth-century conventions, purple has more red (r + r + b) and violet more blue (r + b + b); one can have light and dark violet as well as light and dark purple

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Los atributos de luminosidad y de saturación de un color en el lenguaje cotidiano se confunden y se intercambian: “rojo claro” puede serlo por falta de saturación, pero también por tener mucha luminosidad; el brillo de un color depende también del tipo de la superficie del objeto, dado que la rugosa refleja menos luz que una lisa y pulida. La etimología y el contexto cultural de los términos cromáticos ingleses han sido estudiados por Kerttula, (2002), Steinvall (2002) o Matschi (2004), entre los lingüistas polacos destaca el trabajo de taxonomía cromática dialectal de Zaręba (1954). Los más significativos estudios españoles han sido el de Grossmann (1982), Stala (2011) y las traducciones españolas de las obras de Ball (2003) y Gage (2001). Dado que el espectro cromático aplicable al lenguaje enológico es restringido por la propia naturaleza del vino, la taxonomía analizada en la sección siguiente abarcará sólo los lexemas utilizados como descriptores del vino tinto, prescindiendo de los demás colores.

Los hipónimos del color rojo y los descriptores del vino tinto En la lista de hipónimos españoles de rojo compilada por Grossmann (1982: 80) se encuentran dieciocho términos incluidos en la Tabla 1:

rojo bermejo burdeos carmesí carmín

*cereza colorado coral encarnado escarlata

*guinda ladrillo púrpura rosa *sangre

carne

*granate

vino

Tabla 1 Lista de hipónimos de rojo; descriptores de vino marcados con un asterisco*

En el idioma inglés antiguo el empleo del lexema red no seguía el patrón habitual de los términos cromáticos, ya que priorizaba la luminosidad frente a la pureza del color, de allí que red podía abarcar desde rojomarrón, (russet) pasando por naranja (orange) y morado/ púrpura (purple) hasta el anaranjado (orangey) y dorado (golden) (Matschi, 2004: 61). Kerttula añade la siguiente observación:

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XII Congreso AELFE (2013) Compared to the other red-related colour terms, the use of ‘red’ is surprisingly limited and very cliché-like. […] it is as if chosen only when no creative use of colour is needed, when the colour is to be expressed as a fact. As such it seems to contain it all and is rarely qualified by the other colour–related terms, except for occasional ‘bright’ or ‘dark’ (2002:128).

Si bien en español el vino de color oscuro se llama tinto, en otras lenguas europeas suele coincidir con el lexema correspondiente al color rojo/ red/ czerwony/ etc. Sus diferentes luminosidades y saturaciones han generado una extensa gama de términos, que abarcan desde el: morado/ púrpura/ violeta // purple/ violet// purpurowy/ fioletowy hasta los tonos teja / brick/ ceglasty. A su vez el lenguaje enológico, muy marcado culturalmente, emplea numerosos descriptores cromáticos utilizados en lugar del hiperónimo “rojo”. Un ejemplo de la extensa taxonomía cromática se encuentra en la obra de Peynaud (1987:  38) de obligada referencia para los enólogos, donde el vino tinto dispone de treinta y cinco descriptores listados en la Tabla 2. *Rojo (claro, oscu- *Rojo marrón

Violáceo

Rojizo *Rojo franco *Rojo violeta Rojo amapola Rojo cereza Rojo grosella Rojo sangre Rojo fuego *Rojo ladrillo *Rojo anaranjado *Rojo amarillento

Azul Azulado Negro Negruzco *Teja Pajizo Ojo de perdiz Marrón Ocre Café

ro) Carmín Rubí Rubí quemado Granate Granadina Bermejo Bermellón *Púrpura Purpúreo Purpurino *Violeta

Tabla 2 Treinta y cinco descriptores cromáticos de vino tinto de Peynaud

Peynaud recomienda sólo algunos (aquí marcados con el asterisco *) y advierte que varios, como el “ojo de perdiz”, son de difícil determinación. Sin embargo esa racionalización de términos aún no permite interpretar de una forma unívoca las diferencias entre el “rojo anaranjado” y “rojo ladrillo”. Los lexemas cromáticos identificados en los corpus analizados en este estudio están listados en la Tabla 3 y acompañados por sus frecuencias relativas en los correspondientes corpus nacionales de cada uno de los idiomas analizados.

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Español

Inglés

Polaco

CREA:

British Nat. Corpus

PELCRA

80 M de palabras 8.922 rojo/a/s bermejo 47

100 M de palabras 14.562 red 50 vermilion

250 M de palabras czerwony cynobrowy [adj. color cinabrio]

103.848 92

[cinabrio] carmesí carmín cereza

110 140 93

[cinnabar] crimson carmine cherry

377 40 868

karmazynowy [color carmesí] karminowy [color carmín] wiśniowy [color guinda]

608 750 15.628

color

17

cherry red

22

czereśniowy [color cereza]

4.708

cereza escarlata granate

115 178

scarlet garnet

1137 73

szkarłatny [color escarlata] *granatowy [¡azul marino!]

2.242 8.705

picota

101

morello

1

ciemnoczerwony [rojo oscuro] łutówka [cultivar de cereza,

617 3

color

1

picota púrpura morado

247 233

cherry

término muy poco conocido]

purple

1255

purpura

15

(med.) ruby red brick tawny plum

403 132 212 275

purpurowy [color púrpura] fioletowy

961 1.504

rubinowy [color rubí] ceglasty [color ladrillo] ceglasty / płowy [color ladrillo, śliwkowy [color ciruela- violeta/

221 217 1193 243

rubí teja rojo teja ciruela

74 136 3 66

color

3

ciruela Rosa

2091

pink

3.147

różowy [color rosa]

3.055

violeta rosa fresa

421 0

rosé violet strawberry

27 530 1

fioletowy [color violeta] *róż truskawkowy [*rosa fresa:

1.504 ---

morado]

pink

las fresas se consideran rojas]

Tabla 3 Lexemas cromáticos identificados en los corpus en los tres idiomas

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Es llamativo que el número de ocurrencias del lexema red en inglés es muy superior al de las ocurrencias de rojo en español, pero ambos resultan insignificantes en comparación con las ocurrencias del mismo color en polaco (czerwon*), incluso en un cálculo ponderado. La frecuencia del crimson inglés triplica al carmesí, lo contrario que ocurre con carmín, que es casi cuatro veces más frecuente en español que carmine en inglés, sin embargo el caso más destacado es el de scarlet frente al escarlata, las ocurrencias del lexema inglés son casi diez veces más numerosas. En cuanto al idioma polaco, es notoria la alta frecuencia del lexema wiśniowy [color guinda], muy superior al de czereśniowy [color cereza], lo contrario a lo ocurrido en español y en inglés. Finalmente, es conveniente tomar nota de que el lexema polaco granatowy en polaco, si bien comparte la etimología con los lexemas garnet inglés y granate español, se convierto en su parónimo, ya que representa exclusivamente al color azul marino y no rojo oscuro.

Bermejo – vermilion - cynober El origen etimológico tanto del lexema español bermejo como del inglés vermilion (Matschi 2004; Kerttula 2002) es el término latino vermiculus [gusanito] ya que éste que era utilizado para la producción del tinte. La raíz latina, sin embargo, no ha sido incorporada al polaco, donde se mantiene el latinismo cynober [cinabrio]. El lexema polaco correspondiente al color primario czerwony [rojo] es privativo, ya que no existe en las lenguas eslavas orientales (Zaręba 1954: 28); su etimología también lo vincula con un insecto utilizado para la producción del pigmento rojo denominado czerwiec [Porphyrophora polonica] que dio nombre al color rojo y también al mes de junio denominado czerwiec.

Scarlet - escarlata - szkarłat El latinismo scarlatum: “tela de un color noble, rojo” es la raíz común de los descriptores: scarlet, escarlata y szkarłat; el costoso teñido indicaba el alto estatus social del propietario.

Crimson, carmesí y karmazyn El término árabe quirmiz - producido por un gusano - es la base de los lexemas crimson, carmesí y karmazyn. Dado que su uso estaba restringido a la nobleza, en Polonia la restricción lo convirtió en el símbolo de clase alta que se refería a si misma como “jakem karmazyn!” [¡Cuán carmesí que soy!] (Brückner, 1937: 550-551).

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Garnet – granate – ¡granatowy! Si bien el uso actual en España del lexema grana, se limita a deportes y tauromaquia, es la base del término cromático granate con el que está emparentado el término polaco granatowy. Todavía en el siglo XVIII este adjetivo polaco podía referirse a la fruta granada, a la piedra preciosa, o al paño tenido de un color morado o violeta. A partir del siglo XIX se identificó exclusivamente con el azul marino, tal como afirman Zaręba (1954: 53-54) y el Consejo de la Lengua Polaca.

Púrpura – purple - purpurowy El color púrpura, cuyo valor cromático preciso, tal como se ha señalado más arriba, varía considerablemente, se obtenía de un molusco y en la Roma clásica se denominaba púrpura tirio (Ball, 2003: 54) y su uso, por los codiciados reflejos tornasolados, estaba restringido a la más estricta élite; en Constantinopla su uso fuera de a la familia imperial acarreaba severas penas (Gage, 2001: 25). En la actualidad el color polaco púrpura está más cerca del rojo que del violeta, por contra, el purple inglés abarca el rango completo y puede ser interpretado tanto como púrpura rojizo como morado violáceo. El lexema español morado, derivado de la mora, ocupa parcialmente el espacio del púrpura, si bien tiende más hacia el extremo violeta.

Rubí – ruby - rubinowy El referente del lexema rubí es una piedra preciosa de color rojo oscuro, su empleo en la cata se debe al deseo de propiciar las connotaciones de lujo y exclusividad. El corpus CREA aporta 158 ocurrencias de este lexema en español de España. el corpus polaco arroja 221 ocurrencias para el adjetivo derivado de la raíz rubí (rubinow*), mientras que el British National Corpus tiene 403 registros del lexema ruby.

Rojo teja – brick - ceglasty El inglés y el polaco comparten el referente rojo ladrillo, en español lo sustituye rojo teja. En el corpus diacrónico español CORDE, teja tiene 4217 ocurrencias y ladrillo 2712. El matiz del color depende de la arcilla utilizada y el resultado final puede abarcar desde el castaño claro hasta el rojo vivo.

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XII Congreso AELFE (2013) Color ciruela – plum - śliwkowy

El descriptor color ciruela, presente en los tres idiomas alude a una fruta que puede abarcar una gama de colores desde el verde hasta un azul tan oscuro que casi roza el negro. Sin embargo, como descriptor enológico, siempre se refiere a un tono morado violáceo.

Rojo cereza [picota] guinda – cherry – wiśniowy y czereśniowy El referente cromático frutal más habitual en las notas españolas es el color cereza, o cereza picota, demostrando nuevamente una cierta indefinición ya que las cerezas pueden ser desde amarillas claras hasta un rojo granate saturado. El referente cromático color guinda, inglés morello, polaco wiśniowy, apenas utilizado en español, es muy habitual en lengua polaca y triplica la frecuencia de éste último, dado que su connotación positiva es mayor que la de color cereza.

Traducción de términos cromáticos Olohan (2004) señala que los adjetivos de color con el sufijo –ish son tres veces más frecuentes en el corpus inglés de traducciones, que en el corpus de textos originales del BNC (308 vs. 91). La relativa frecuencia de los sinónimos de red en las traducciones inglesas confirma que el corpus BNC contiene más hipónimos que los textos traducidos. Una selección de términos cromáticos de Olohan (2004: 123) ha sido provista de Observaciones referidas a los descriptores de vino.

Lexema inglés Blood Bloodshot

Corpus traducido 18 27

BNC 8 20

Burgundy

3

12

Cherry

5

4

Claret

0

1

Crimson

70

39

Garnet

4

3

Observaciones Confirma la aversión a la “sangre” en inglés véase supra Carga positiva debida a la alta valoración del vino de la región Muy frecuente como descriptor de vino Carga positiva debida a la alta valoración del vino de este nombre Mayor frecuencia del lexema en otros idiomas y posibilidad de traducción literal menos habitual que ruby

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XII Congreso AELFE (2013) Rosy

48

24

Ruby Russet

6 15

8 21

Scarlet

62

117

Vermilion

14

6

Wine

15

9

TOTALS

421

489

rosy vs. pink, rosy es traducción literal de rosé, rosado, rossig, etc. véase crimson, carga positiva y traducción literal concordancia de scarlet en otros idiomas puede implicar su connotación más culta caso contrario que scarlet, cultismo en inglés y término neutro en otros idiomas

Tabla 4 Hipónimos de red y las observaciones derivadas de su uso como descriptores de vino tinto

Traducción al polaco de términos enológicos cromáticos Australia: • dense purple colour -> gleboka purpurowa barwa (denso cambiado por profundo; púrpura en polaco es más rojiza que purple en inglés; el lexema barwa tiene connotaciones positivas que no tiene colour que tiene valor neutro). • dense plum/purple -> intensywna ciemnopurpurowa barwa (denso cambiado por intenso, plum/purple convertido en púrpura oscuro, barwa) • opaque purple colour with dark purple hues -> nieprzejrzysty, purpurowy kolor z ciemnofioletowymi refleksami (purple traducido en dos modos diferentes (purpura y violeta/morado); hue traducido como reflejo). California: • rich, deep. dark purple inky color traducido como: kolor intensywny, wrecz atramentowy deep como intensywny, desaparece purple, el epíteto inky referido a la densidad/oscuridad del color se convierte en propio de tinta, sin embargo en polaco atrament implica prácticamente en exclusiva el color negro o azul marino, a veces verde o rojo. [atrament łac. atramentum ‘czernidło’], • enjoy the beautiful straw color -> wino o slomkowym kolorze (la paja es basta, no bella en polaco, de modo que se prescinde del descriptor)

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• this vintage has a dark purple-red color -> ciemny, purpurowoczerwony kolor [implica un matiz mucho más rojo que morado, de modo que se aleja de la indicación original] Nueva Zelanda: •

bright ruby -> jaskrawy, rubinowy kolor (jaskrawy [chillón] tiene connotaciones más bien peyorativas)

•

pale straw -> lekkie wino o bladym, słomkowym kolorze [blady = pálido]; słomkowym = [pajizo] sensación enfermiza, poco deseable

•

wino o słomkowym kolorze [vino de color paja]

España: •

de color picota intenso -> kolor gleboki, wisniowy [color guinda profundo]

•

color rojo cereza oscuro -> ciemny skoncentrowany, wisniowy kolor [color guinda concentrado y oscuro]

•

de color granate oscuro con tonalidades teja muy brillante -> ciemnobordowe z nietypowo blyszczacymi ceglastymi odcieniami [burdeos oscuro con atípicos brillos de tonos ladrillo]

Técnicas de traducción de términos cromáticos • Traducción literal que mantiene la denotación y la connotación altamente positiva: ruby / rubí -> rubinowy; scarlet/ escarlata* ->szkarlatny • Traducción literal aunque la denotación y la connotación el lexema original no se correspondan con las del lexema original: purple / púrpura / morado -> purpurowy • Traducción “literal” aunque se trate de parónimos: rojo cereza con ribete granate, cubierto. Limpio. -> wino o wiśniowym kolorze, z granatowym odcieniem na obrzeżach. Czyste. • Ampliación y reducción consistentes en añadir términos inexistentes en el texto original y prescindir de otros: ruby red -> wino o rubinowej barwie (lexema cromático “red” desaparece, pero aparece vino) • Ampliación consistente en añadido de descriptores que neutralizan las connotaciones peyorativas del lexema traducido literalmente: pale straw -> lekkie wino o bladym, slomkowym kolorze

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• Omisión de lexemas inexistentes en la lengua meta: vino de capa media/alta, color rojo rubí con reflejos teja -> wino o czerwonorubinowej barwie z ceglastymi odcieniami (desaparece capa media/ alta). • Reducción de una alta valoración positiva hacia una menos marcada en la lengua meta: color rojo cereza intenso, capa media y lágrima lenta y ancha -> intensywny wisniowy kolor.

Bibliografía Ball, P. (2003). La invención del color. Madrid: Turner Bornstein, M. (2007). “Hue categorization and color naming: Cognition to language to culture” en: R. MacLaury et al. (eds.), Anthropology of colour. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing, 3-28. Brückner, A. (1990) [1937]. Encyklopedia staropolska T.1-2 (Enciclopedia de la Polonia antigua). Varsovia: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe. Gage, J. (2001). Color y cultura: la práctica y el significado del color de la Antiguedad a la abstracción. Madrid: Siruela Grossman, M. (1982). El sistema léxico-semántico de los términos de color en castellano. AISPI, Centro Virtual Cervantes: URL: www.cvc.cervantes.es/literatura/aispi/pdf/03/03_069.pdf (27.07.2013) Kerttula, S. (2002). English Colour Terms Etymology, Chronology, and Relative Basicness. Helsinki: Societe Neophilologique. Lowengard, S. (2006). The Creation of Color in Eighteenth-Century Europe. New York: Gutenbertg-e. URL: http://www.gutenberg-e.org/lowengard/C_Chap06.html (16.08.2013) Lucy, J. A. (1997). “The linguistics of color” en: C.L. Hardin & L. Maffi (eds.) Color http://www. gutenberg-e.org/lowengard/C_Chap06.html categories in thought and language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 3210-346. Manel Barba, L. (2003). La cata de vinos. Guía completa para conocer y degustar los vinos. Escuela Española de Cata. Barcelona: Random House Mondadori, S.A.

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Matschi, M. (2004). “Color Terms in English: Onomasiological and Semasiological Aspects” en: Onomasiology Online 5: 56-139. Olohan, M. (2004). Introducing corpora in Translation studies. London & New York: Routledge. Peynaud, E. (2002) (1987). El gusto del vino. Madrid: Mundi-Prensa Steinvall, A. (2002). English Color Terms in Context. Disertación doctoral, Universidad de Umea, URL: http://umu.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?searchId=2&pid=diva2:144764http://umu.diva-portal. org/smash/record.jsf?searchId=2&pid=diva2:144764 (15.10.2013) Wierzbicka, A. (1997). Understanding Cultures through their Key Words: English, Russian, Polish, German and Japanese. Oxford: Oxford University Press Zaręba, A. (1954). Nazwy barw w dialektach i historii języka polskiego [Nombres de los colores en los dialectos y en la historia de la lengua polaca]. PAN. Prace Językoznawcze. Wrocław: Zakład Imienia Ossolinskich.

ANEXO

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Un ejemplo de multilingüismo: la enseñanza del alemán y del francés en la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid Javier Herráez Pindado Isabel Serra Pfennig Universidad Politécnica de Madrid

Resumen

En esta comunicación nos proponemos en primer lugar analizar la situación de las lenguas alemana y francesa en la Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Industriales (ETSII) de la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, después de la introducción de la exigencia en los nuevos Grados en Ingeniería del nivel B2 de inglés, como requisito previo para los alumnos. Afortunadamente, nuestra Escuela ha sido consciente de que no basta con este único idioma, sobre todo gracias a los acuerdos con numerosos centros de países de lengua alemana y francesa, que exigen en general un nivel B1 de la lengua respectiva. El deseo de acceder a estos centros extranjeros, unido a la evidencia de la necesidad de otros idiomas para el acceso al mundo laboral, ha generado una demanda creciente por parte de los estudiantes de nuestra Escuela. En una segunda parte, explicamos el enfoque de nuestras asignaturas, concebidas para dotar a nuestros alumnos de los conocimientos y habilidades necesarias para desenvolverse en su vida académica, profesional y personal. La elección de los contenidos de aprendizaje y su explotación didáctica debe ir encaminada específicamente a conseguir que nuestros alumnos adquieran las destrezas necesarias para ser capaces de comprender y expresar los contenidos técnicos y científicos que han adquirido durante su formación.

Abstract

In this paper we first analyze the situation of the German and French languages ​​at the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Industriales (ETSII) of the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, after the introduction

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of a B2 level of English as a prerequisite for students in the new Engineering Degree. Thanks to the agreements with numerous centers from German- and French-speaking countries, which generally require a B1 level of their respective languages, our school has fortunately realized that the proficiency in only one language is not enough. The wish to access these foreign centers, coupled with the need to master other languages to obtain employment, has generated a growing demand for multilingual instruction from the students of our school. In the second part of this presentation, we shall explain our courses’ approach, designed to give our students the knowledge and skills necessary to get on in their personal, academic and professional life. The choice of syllabi and their didactic exploitation must be specifically designed to ensure that our students acquire the abilities needed to understand and express the scientific and technical content they have acquired during their training.

Palabras clave: lenguas para fines específicos, lenguas para la ingeniería, enseñanza del francés, enseñanza del alemán. Key Words: languages for specific purposes, languages for engineering, French teaching, German teaching.

Situación de las lenguas en la ETSII-UPM

Con la implantación de los nuevos Grados en Ingeniería puestos en marcha a partir del año 2009, la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid ha impuesto el nivel B2 de inglés, según el Marco Común Europeo de Referencia para las Lenguas, como requisito previo para los alumnos de todas las escuelas y facultades. Podría pensarse que la lengua inglesa es suficiente para desenvolverse como ingeniero en el mundo actual. Pero la realidad confirma que es necesario el aprendizaje de otras lenguas. La Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Industriales de la UPM ha sido consciente de esta necesidad y ha implantado en sus nuevos planes de estudio tres niveles de francés y de alemán, que están teniendo una gran aceptación por parte de nuestros alumnos. La razón del interés por otras lenguas distintas al inglés en nuestra Escuela es doble: por un lado el intercambio

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constante de alumnos con otros centros técnicos superiores en el extranjero y por otro la evidencia de la necesidad del dominio de otras lenguas de cara a su futuro laboral. Desde hace mucho tiempo, nuestra Escuela tiene acuerdos con numerosos centros de países de lengua alemana y francesa, lo cual ha generado una demanda creciente por parte de nuestros estudiantes, dado que estos centros exigen un conocimiento de la lengua respectiva. Además, nuestra Escuela es muy estricta con los requisitos lingüísticos y exige un nivel B1 de alemán, francés, inglés o italiano para poder participar en estos programas. Los estudiantes deben tener claro que tienen que tener un conocimiento suficiente del idioma en el que se imparten los cursos a los que van a asistir. En la normativa de la Oficina de Relaciones Internacionales se especifica claramente que no deben pensar que van a realizar estudios en el extranjero para aprender un idioma desde un nivel básico, ya que no se trata de escuelas de idiomas sino de escuelas de ingeniería. Tenemos acuerdos bilaterales con 47 centros franceses, 9 centros alemanes, 4 belgas, 4 austriacos, 1 suizo y 1 canadiense. Para estos centros se pide generalmente el nivel B1 de la lengua correspondiente. Por otro lado, la ETSII-UPM pertenece a la red Top Industrial Managers in Europe (TIME) que reúne a las mejores universidades y escuelas de Europa para la promoción de las Dobles Titulaciones. En base a estos programas de Doble Titulación los estudiantes tienen la oportunidad de conseguir dos titulaciones: la de la ETSII – UPM y la de una universidad extranjera. Tenemos acuerdos de Doble Titulación con 3 centros alemanes, 1 austriaco, 3 belgas y 24 franceses. La segunda razón para la alta demanda de idiomas distintos al inglés en la ETSII-UPM está relacionada con el futuro laboral de nuestros alumnos. En la situación actual, es cada vez más frecuente la necesidad de buscar trabajo en el extranjero o de trabajar en empresas extranjeras radicadas en España.

El reto del profesor de alemán y francés en una escuela técnica

Aunque es una obviedad, hay que señalar que no somos profesores en una escuela de idiomas sino en una escuela de ingenieros. Las lenguas no son la enseñanza central, sino un apoyo, un instrumento. El objetivo primordial de nuestra escuela es formar ingenieros que puedan desempeñar su trabajo de la mejor manera posible.

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Igualmente tenemos que tener claro que nuestras asignaturas no son la prioridad de nuestros alumnos, cuyas materias troncales van a ser eminentemente técnicas y científicas. Esto puede conllevar el inconveniente de que van a dedicar la mayor parte de su tiempo a las asignaturas principales, pero tiene también sus ventajas, entre las que figura una muy importante y de la que procuramos sacar el máximo partido: para ellos la clase de idioma constituye algo totalmente diferente a las demás asignaturas, es como un paréntesis, un oasis en medio de sus quehaceres técnicos. Encontrarse en una clase en la que tienen que hablar, participar, interaccionar con los compañeros y el profesor hace que se encuentren a gusto y que el aprovechamiento sea máximo. El profesor de idiomas en una escuela de ingenieros se encuentra en un mundo diferente al que está acostumbrado. Procedemos de facultades de filología y nos encontramos en un ámbito técnico, con profesores que tienen concepciones distintas y con alumnos también diferentes a los de las facultades de humanidades. Debemos, pues, encajar nuestra concepción procedente de los estudios de letras con el mundo eminentemente práctico de una escuela de ingeniería. La visión del ingeniero tiene poco que ver con la del filólogo, pero también es muy diferente de la del científico. El ingeniero no se pregunta tanto el porqué de las cosas sino que trata más bien de solucionar problemas, tiene por lo tanto una visión eminentemente práctica. Desea una enseñanza eficaz que le permita enfrentarse a los problemas y solucionarlos. El enfoque de nuestras asignaturas tiene que tener en cuenta todas estas premisas, debemos partir de un método específico para ingenieros, que pueda cubrir las necesidades de nuestros estudiantes de ingeniería y les permita encajar sus conocimientos técnicos con las exigencias de la vida actual, además de disponer de un bagaje lingüístico suficiente para desenvolverse en los centros extranjeros y en un nuevo entorno social y cultural. Así pues, nuestras asignaturas tienen un carácter marcadamente instrumental; los alumnos lo necesitan como instrumento para el desarrollo de su actividad de aprendizaje o como profesionales. Además debemos tener en cuenta el tiempo disponible. Los tres niveles de las dos lenguas pertenecen al bloque llamado Asignaturas de Competencias, con tres créditos ECTS en cada nivel y se imparten en el tercer y cuarto curso.

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La enseñanza-aprendizaje del francés en la ETSII-UPM

La mayor parte de los alumnos que eligen nuestras asignaturas han cursado ya francés en la enseñanza secundaria, por lo que tienen ya algún conocimiento del idioma, aunque no muy profundo. Hay un pequeño porcentaje de alumnos que no tienen ninguna noción de francés y otro porcentaje, también reducido, que tienen amplios conocimientos: han estudiado en centros como el Liceo Francés o han hecho cursos en la Escuela Oficial de Idiomas u otros centros en España o en países francófonos. La asignatura de Francés I está enfocada a recordar y a consolidar los conocimientos que ya tenían. Para ello hay que hacer una revisión importante de la gramática y del vocabulario. Se parte de lo más básico, pero se avanza a gran velocidad, en primer lugar porque la mayoría de los alumnos ya había adquirido esos conocimientos y, aunque los había olvidado en cierta medida, los recupera rápidamente; y en segundo lugar porque son alumnos muy capacitados. En Francés II se continúan trabajando aspectos de la lengua general, pero ya se van introduciendo contenidos específicos para una escuela de ingenieros. Los textos no son todavía totalmente técnicos, sino que se alternan los generales con los semitécnicos o semicientíficos, siempre procurando que los temas sean de interés para alumnos de ingeniería y que al mismo tiempo aporten ya una base de vocabulario científico y técnico, si bien todavía no muy específico. Vamos introduciendo poco a poco explicaciones y ejercicios gramaticales centrados en los aspectos que pueden plantear especial dificultad y sobre todo en los que son más utilizados en francés técnico y científico. La asignatura de Francés III está dedicada prácticamente en su totalidad a temas técnicos y profesionales propios de la ingeniería. Es el curso más difícil de afrontar y de preparar para el profesor, empezando por la elección de los contenidos y de los materiales. En inglés existen numerosísimos y buenos manuales para ingenieros y técnicos de todas las especialidades. Lamentablemente, en el caso del francés no sucede lo mismo. Hay muchos métodos para enseñar el francés general, abundan igualmente los manuales para campos como la economía, el mundo empresarial, la hostelería, etc. Sin embargo, en el caso del francés técnico, los manuales a nuestra disposición son muy pocos y en su mayoría no se adaptan plenamente a las necesidades específicas de nuestros alumnos. La solución adoptada ha sido seleccionar nuestro propio material, con lo que además nos aseguramos

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de que está perfectamente adaptado a nuestros alumnos, tanto en el nivel de lengua como en el campo de la tecnología. No es lo mismo un manual para ingenieros industriales que para ingenieros forestales, agrónomos o aeronáuticos. Además, los materiales propios se pueden revisar todas las veces que sea necesario. Dado que en técnica los avances son continuos y cada vez más rápidos, es importante tener la posibilidad de cambiar a menudo los textos. Cada año vamos eliminando los textos que consideramos desfasados y los sustituimos por otros más actuales y de mayor interés para los alumnos. Los criterios para elegir los materiales son de varios tipos. - El campo de la técnica. Los contenidos de nuestro programa están enfocados a la ingeniería industrial, cuyos campos principales son la mecánica, la química, la electricidad y la electrónica. Es muy importante, en este momento de selección del material didáctico, contar con el asesoramiento de los profesores de otros departamentos. El idioma no debe ser simplemente una asignatura aislada, sino que debe integrarse en el conjunto del plan de estudios, debe constituir un medio, un instrumento que les ayude en su vida académica y profesional. - Dificultad del material. Aunque trabajamos con material auténtico, procuramos que la dificultad sea media tanto en lo que se refiere a la técnica como al idioma. - Tipo de material. Los documentos tienen que ser variados en cuanto a las nociones y funciones que contienen. Debemos incluir temas como las instrucciones de manejo de aparatos, las descripciones de aparatos o instalaciones, funcionamiento de máquinas, descripción de procesos y operaciones, propiedades y usos de los materiales, informes técnicos, etc. Además, los textos tienen que incluir rasgos del discurso científico y técnico como la clasificación, la prohibición, la autorización, las consignas de seguridad, los esquemas, la ejemplificación, la obligación, etc. En resumen, debemos procurar que los materiales contengan en la medida de lo posible todo el pensamiento técnico y científico expresado lingüísticamente. La explotación de los materiales difiere mucho de uno a otro, pero en general en este tercer curso de francés ya no se explican de modo sistemático los temas gramaticales sino que se van revisando los que aparecen en los textos, insistiendo en los que son más comunes en francés técnico. En cuanto al vocabulario, los ejercicios son abundantes. Se insiste en aspectos importantes en el lenguaje técnico como son la derivación, la composición y las unidades léxicas complejas.

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La enseñanza-aprendizaje del alemán en la ETSII-UPM

En el caso del alemán, las características de los alumnos son distintas a los de francés porque son muy pocos los que vienen con un conocimiento previo de alemán, prácticamente sólo los que provienen del Colegio Alemán o con lazos familiares en países de lengua alemana tienen un nivel alto, mientras que los que han cursado alemán en secundaria tienen un nivel básico. La asignatura de Alemán I empieza desde lo más básico, se trabajan los aspectos comunicativos esenciales para poder adquirir rápidamente unas competencias suficientes, aunque no se llega a avanzar tan rápido como en el francés debido a las características lingüísticas de la lengua alemana, con estructuras gramaticales mucho más complejas y alejadas del español. El vocabulario escogido es básico pero suficiente para que nuestros alumnos adquieran unas bases lingüísticas adecuadas y puedan expresarse sin dificultad. En cuanto al Alemán II, el alumno adquiere conocimientos más amplios de la estructura gramatical alemana y del léxico general. En este segundo curso se fomenta mucho más el uso comunicativo de la lengua. En el plano sintáctico se van introduciendo oraciones subordinadas simples y en el plano léxico se intenta ampliar el vocabulario con material auténtico. También hay una inmersión en el uso de la lengua alemana durante toda la clase, evitando utilizar el español en todo momento. En el último curso, Alemán III, además de afianzar los conocimientos lingüísticos generales, se procura utilizar contenidos que abarcan las distintas especialidades de la Escuela. En cuanto a los manuales de aprendizaje de la lengua alemana, en Alemán I y II utilizamos métodos comunicativos que vamos renovando cada año en función de las necesidades de cada grupo. Sin embargo, en Alemán III utilizamos, además de los manuales, materiales auténticos con contenido técnico o semitécnico adaptados a las necesidades de nuestros alumnos. Debido al amplio campo de la ingeniería en nuestra Escuela se usan textos provenientes de revistas técnicas y otras fuentes normativas. En cuanto al léxico, se ha puesto énfasis especial en la inclusión de términos que provienen de áreas innovadoras, entre otras del campo de la electrónica, técnica de automatización, robótica, física nuclear, tecnología energética, tecnología de producción y de procesos. Hay que insistir en que, paradójicamente, los textos científico-técnicos tienen una estructura sintáctica más simple que otro de tipo de textos. Son rasgos característicos del alemán técnico, al igual que el francés, la

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nominalización, la composición de palabras, el uso frecuente de la voz pasiva y el uso impersonal del verbo. La voz pasiva en alemán se usa en varios tiempos verbales y en combinación con los verbos modales y con formas infinitivas. Pero quizá el rasgo más representativo y distintivo del alemán técnico es la composición, como podemos observar en el siguiente ejemplo:

Abfallausschluss m

exclusión f de recogida de residuos

Abfallbeförderung f

transporte m de residuos

Abfallbehandlung f

tratamiento m de residuos

Abfallbeseitigung f

eliminación f de residuos

Abfallfreie Technologie f

tecnología f no generadora de residuos

Abfallreiniger m

clasificador m de desechos

Abfallsammelfahrzeug n

vehículo m del servicio de recogida de basuras

Abfallsammlung f

recogida f de basuras

Conclusión

La implantación del estudio de las lenguas francesa y alemana en los nuevos planes de estudio de la Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Industriales la coloca en una posición privilegiada dentro de la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, en donde no es habitual el estudio de otras lenguas distintas al inglés. De esta manera, nuestros alumnos estarán mejor preparados para afrontar los retos que supone la internacionalización académica y profesional. Nuestros datos confirman una muy buena aceptación por parte del alumnado. Nuestra tarea como profesores consiste ahora en sacar el máximo partido a estas asignaturas de manera que puedan ser útiles para el futuro de nuestros alumnos. Esta tarea es más difícil para profesores formados en facultades de humanidades porque debemos adaptarnos al mundo de la ingeniería, pero gracias a nuestro esfuerzo y a la colaboración de los profesores de otros departamentos hemos conseguido, sin llegar a ser

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especialistas, acercarnos al mundo de la ingeniería y así poder abordar mejor nuestra docencia. Al adaptar nuestra docencia al mundo de la técnica, el alumno ve las asignaturas como algo más cercano y se implica más en el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje.

Bibliografía

Carrió Pastor, M.L. (ed.) (2005). Perspectivas Interdisciplinares de la Lingüística Aplicada. Tomo I: Adquisición y Aprendizaje. Enseñanza de lenguas y Diseño Curricular. Valencia: Universidad Politécnica de Valencia. Eurin-Balmet, S., Henao de Legge, M. (1992). Pratiques de français scientifique. Paris: Hachette / AUPELF. Franck, N., Stary, J. (2003). Die Technik wissenschaftlichen Arbeitens. Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh. Kocourek, R. (1991). La langue française de la technique et de la science. Wiesbaden: Brandstetter Verlag. Schade, G. (1993). Einführung in die deusche Sprache der Wissenschaften. Berlin: Erich Schmidt. Tolas, J. (2004). Le Français pour les sciences. Grenoble: Presses Universitaires de Grenoble.

Coordinador de la edición: Alan Floyd Moore Editado por: Galebook S.L. ISBN: 978-84-940735-9-5