Benefits and Costs
www.ieej.or.jp/aperc
[email protected]
Urban Transport Energy Use in the APEC Region
Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre (APERC) Institute of Energy Economics, Japan Tokyo, Japan
Urban Transport Energy Use in the APEC Region Benefits and Costs
APERC 2008 Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre
ISBN 978-4-931482-39-5
APERC 2008
APEC # 208-RE-01.4
Benefits and Costs
www.ieej.or.jp/aperc
[email protected]
Urban Transport Energy Use in the APEC Region
Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre (APERC) Institute of Energy Economics, Japan Tokyo, Japan
Urban Transport Energy Use in the APEC Region Benefits and Costs
APERC 2008 Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre
ISBN 978-4-931482-39-5
APERC 2008
APEC # 208-RE-01.4
URBAN TRANSPORT ENERGY USE IN THE APEC REGION B E N E F I T S A N D CO S T S
ASIA PACIFIC ENERGY RESEARCH CENTRE www.ieej.or.jp/aperc
Published by Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre (APERC) Inui Building Kachidoki 16F, 1-13-1 Kachidoki Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104-0054 Japan Tel: (813) 5144-8551 Fax: (813) 5144-8555 Email:
[email protected] (administration) 2008 Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre APEC #208-RE-01.4 ISBN978-4-931482-39-5 Printed in Japan on FSC certified stock
F OREWORD We are pleased to present the report, Urban Transport Energy Use in the APEC Region – Benefits and Costs. This is the second part of a twoyear study undertaken by the Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre. Phase I of this study analysed factors affecting urban transport energy demand, particularly with passenger vehicles, in both developing and developed economies in APEC. It offered options to control transport energy demand in urban areas within APEC. By broadening the scope, phase II of the study seeks to analyse the factors affecting both energy and CO2 intensities of urban mass transit systems in APEC. In addition, the study reviews the financial performance of the major urban transport systems in APEC and analyses potential socio-economic benefits that are likely to result from the development of mass transit systems. The report is published by APERC as an independent study and does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the APEC Energy Working Group or individual member economies. But, we do hope that it will serve as a useful basis for analytical discussion both within and among APEC member economies for the enhancement of energy security in APEC and sustainable development around the world.
Kenji Kobayashi President Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank all of those who contributed to this study. The development of this report could not have been accomplished without the contributions of many individuals. In particular, valuable advice and insights were received from a number of experts worldwide, including Hajime Amano (Toyota Motor Corp., Japan), Hirohiko Hoshi (Toyota Motor Corp., Japan), Kerati Kijmanawat, (Pacific Consultants, Thailand), Kyung-Hwan Kim (Sogang University, Korea), Kotaro Kimura (JKA, Japan), Hoesung Lee (Keimyung University, Korea), Thierry Lefevre (CEERD-FIHRD, Thailand), Chow Kuang Loh (Land Transport Authority, Singapore), Robinson Manurung (Ministry of Transport, Indonesia), Kenichi Matsui (Institute of Energy Economics, Japan), Shinji Omoteyama (Institute of Energy Economics, Japan), David Pumphrey (Center for Strategic and International Studies, USA), Junji Shibata (Pacific Consultants, Japan), Jeffrey Skeer (Department of Energy, USA), and Chamroon Tangpaisalkit (Ministry of Transport, Thailand). We also would like to thank members of the APEC Energy Working Group (EWG), APEC Expert Group on Energy Data and Analysis (EGEDA), and APERC Advisory Board, along with numerous government officials, for their helpful information and comments. Yonghun Jung, Vice President of APERC, provided overall guidance and valuable insights on the study’s direction.
PROJECT LEADER Naoko Doi
PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATORS Alicia Altagracia Aponte Herminio Ayala Ariola David Fedor Mardrianto Kadri Ji Li Shu-Chuan Lin Tomoko Matsumoto Van Vy Nguyen
OTHER CONTRIBUTORS Narumon Intharak Sau Yi Wan
EDITOR Alicia Altagracia Aponte
ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT Sutemi Arikawa, Shohei Okano, Sachi Goto, and Mizuho Fueta
CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...
1
ENERGY INTENSITY OF URBAN MASS TRANSIT IN APEC ... 7 FACTORS AFFECTING URBAN MASS TRANSIT RIDERSHIP ... 21 FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE OF URBAN MASS TRANSIT ... 31 ECONOMIC EVALUATION OF URBAN MASS TRANSIT ... 43 INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES IN URBAN MASS TRANSIT Jakarta ... 53 Manila ... 61
REFERENCES ... 71
L IST OF A BBREVIATIONS ABARE
Australian Bureau of Agriculture and Resource Economics
APEC
Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation
APERC
Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre
ASEAN
Association of Southeast Asian Nations
AUS
Australia
BCM
billion cubic metres
BRT
bus rapid transit
BD
Brunei Darussalam
CDA
Canada
CHL
Chile
CNG
compressed natural gas
CO2
carbon dioxide
CO
carbon monoxide
CT
Chinese Taipei
DOE
Department of Energy (USA)
EDMC
Energy Data and Modelling Center (Japan)
EIA
Energy Information Administration (USA)
EWG
Energy Working Group (APEC)
GDP
gross domestic product
GHG
greenhouse gases
g/kWh
grams per kilowatt-hour (used to measure the emissions caused by the generation of one unit of electricity)
GNP
gross national product
GRP
gross regional product
GTL
gas to liquids
GW
gigawatt
GWh
gigawatt-hour
HC
(un-combusted) hydrocarbons
HOV
high occupancy vehicle
HKC
Hong Kong, China
IEA
International Energy Agency
IEEJ
Institute of Energy Economics, Japan
INA
Indonesia
IPCC
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
JPN
Japan
kgoe
kilogram of oil equivalent
ktoe
thousand tonnes of oil equivalent
LNG
liquefied natural gas
LPG
liquefied petroleum gas
LRT
light rail transit
MAS
Malaysia
mbd
million barrels per day
MCM
million cubic metres
MEX
Mexico
MMBTU
Million British Thermal Units
MRT
mass rapid transit
Mtoe
million tonnes of oil equivalent
NGV
natural gas vehicle
NRE
new and renewable energy
NOx
unspecified nitrogen oxides
NO2
nitrogen dioxide
NZ
New Zealand
O3
(surface) ozone
PE
Peru
PM
particulate matter of (generally
