RESEARCH ARTICLE
Sports Game Play: A Comparison of Moderate to Vigorous Physical Activities in Adolescents MARCIA A. PATIENCE, MAa MARCUS W. KILPATRICK, PhDb HAICHUN SUN, PhDc SARA B. FLORY, PhDd THOMAS A. WATTERSON, PhDe
ABSTRACT BACKGROUND: Research suggests participation in sports is an important contributor to overall adolescent physical activity (PA). Sports play has become increasingly important in physical education (PE) classes as a means for promoting healthful and enjoyable PA. Research is needed that investigates physiological and perceptual responses to sport play. METHODS: We studied 101 (55 males; 46 females, age 11-14) students who participated in flag football (FF), basketball (BB), and flag rugby (FR). Activity counts were collected using accelerometers. Perceived competence and enjoyment were measured using the intrinsic motivation inventory. RESULTS: Each sport activity produced acceptable levels of activity and positive perceptual responses, but differences among sports were noted. Accelerometry data indicated that FR and BB were more intense than FF (p < .001). Perceptual data indicated participation in FR elicited higher perceptions of competence and greater enjoyment when compared to FF and BB (p < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Participation in sport activity within middle school PE classes provides excellent opportunities for energy expenditure and positive perceptual responses. Most importantly, FR provides an activity stimulus that has potential benefits both physiologically and psychologically. Keywords: physical activity; middle school students; sports. Citation: Patience MA, Kilpatrick MW, Sun H, Watterson TA. Sports game play: a comparison of moderate to vigorous physical activities in adolescents.. J Sch Health. 2013; 83: 818-823. Received on June 21, 2012 Accepted on March 3, 2013
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ates of obesity and overweight among children and adolescents have nearly tripled in recent decades, yet regular physical activity (PA) provides health benefits across the life span.1,2 Children tend to be more active than adults, but as they transition into adolescence, activity levels begin to steadily decline.2,3 Presently, it appears that a decrease in PA has become accepted as the norm, whereas participation in sedentary activities, such as computer and video game use have gained popularity.4 Among adolescents ages 12-19, 16% are overweight and 31% are overweight, or at risk of becoming overweight.5 Most states (86%) require middle schools to provide physical education (PE).6 The National
Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) recommends daily PE and the accumulation of at least 150 minutes of PA per week for elementary students and 225 minutes per week for middle school and high school students.7 Observations in the PE classroom of middle schools revealed that 18% of students engage in moderate to vigorous PA and 53% of those observed appeared to be in an inactive state.8 Similarly, while 60 minutes per day of activity is recommended, the adolescent population does not appear to be meeting these requirements. Middle school students appear to be physically active in PE an average of 40 minutes.6 The rise in overweightness and obesity might be attributed to the absence of daily, required PE at
a Teaching Associate, (
[email protected]), Coastal Carolina University, Conway, SC 29526. bAssociate Professor, (
[email protected]), University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Ave., Tampa, FL 33620. c Assistant Professor, (
[email protected]), University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Ave., Tampa, FL 33620. dAssistant Professor, (sbfl
[email protected]), University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Ave., Tampa, FL 33620. e Associate Professor, (
[email protected]), University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Ave., Tampa, FL 33620.
Address correspondence to: Marcia A. Patience, Teaching Associate, (
[email protected],) Coastal Carolina University, Conway, SC 29526. This work was privately funded by Bay Area Pelicans under the direction of Rugby 4 Life and More Health Inc. Special thanks to the participants and volunteers of the study for dedicating time for the purpose of the project.
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the middle school level. Only 8% of middle schools provide daily PE for the entire school year, and 15% offer daily PE for at least 18 weeks of the school year.6 Researchers previously identified that adolescents age 9-15 spend more time in PA during the week than the weekend.9 Because school PE is a primary source of PA for the adolescent, and the health benefits of daily PA are numerous, opportunities to be physically active in PE is paramount.9 Researchers identify that students have become more active in PE with the inclusion of games, sports, or dance, thus increasing PA duration from an average of 15-18 minutes per class time.3,6 Other research has documented and confirmed that PA may benefit adolescents by increasing their aerobic fitness, bone mass, and by reducing their risk of obesity and hypertension.2,3 Many scholars have identified the associated health benefits of participating in sports, including learning and lifelong skill development, active learning, opportunity for recognition, and positive social and behavioral development.1,10,11 Sports such as basketball (BB) and soccer have the potential to promote cardiovascular fitness and typically generalize to a child’s community.3,11,12 Sports are a major component of the secondary PE curriculum as they allow opportunities for PA and appear to be enjoyable to adolescents.3,6 Therefore, participation in sports during school PE may provide adolescents with opportunities to participate in PA with appropriate intensity and duration to promote healthier lives. It is well known that when an individual enjoys an activity, they may participate in the activity for longer durations.13 Cognitive evaluation theory states that motivation is based on people’s needs to be competent and self-determining.14,15 PA enjoyment is related to perceptions of competence, autonomy, and perceived success, and thus, is linked to self-efficacy and motivation behavior.14,15 It is important that intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy be fostered during adolescence in the preparation for transition into middle school, high school and throughout adulthood. Generally, greater participation tends to occur in activities that are deemed to be more enjoyable.16 The strong link between enjoyment of activity in PE and continued PA has been well documented in research in adolescents.12,13,16 Many sport activities are found to be enjoyable in the adolescent population.12 Therefore, it seems likely that sports play in PE will be most enjoyed by the adolescent. Given the general increase in concerns related to adolescent PA and weight status, there have been a number of published studies based on PE interventions. These studies indicate that PE programs can potentially influence PA by making it more enjoyable and allowing more time for free game play. A 2-year middle school PE intervention, M-SPAN, observed 24 middle schools and found lesson time Journal of School Health
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that is allocated more efficiently can improve PA for middle school students.17 In this intervention, the instructors effectively maximized activity by allowing additional game playtime. In the Lifestyle Education for Activity Program (LEAP) intervention the purpose was to emphasize enjoyment of activity and increase PA self-efficacy. The intervention found 8th grade girls increased daily PA and class participation during the program intervention.18 A study on the effects of a 2-year PE program on PA in elementary school students found that allowing students to engage in game play increased PA levels more than modifying the structure of the class.19 One sport that has received relatively little attention in research is flag rugby (FR). For some PE programs, FR is a relatively novel activity, and students are not as familiar with the activity as other sports such as soccer, baseball/softball, or BB. Proponents believe the fitness stimulus associated with participation in FR is similar to or greater than traditional American sports,20 with added benefits derived from variations of traditional game play that facilitate movement of all players (eg, Rugby4Life). Because adolescent participation in school PE is a primary means for achieving the health benefits of PA, we wanted to investigate how different team sport activities provide opportunities for students to meet recommended guidelines. Specifically, we wanted to examine levels of PA intensity and PA durations, as well as the relationship of enjoyment and perceived competence. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare traditional team sport activities with FR. It was hypothesized that FR would yield higher activity levels and more desirable responses with respect to enjoyment and perceived competence.
METHODS Research Setting The study was conducted in a middle school in a metropolitan area in the United States. The school served more than 1000 grade 6-8 students from middle class neighborhoods. Students were 66% White/Caucasian, 20% Latino, 6% African American, 4% Asian, and 4% multi-race. All students in this school were enrolled in PE, which was a required course that met every day for 50 minutes. School facilities included a gymnasium, outdoor sport courts and fields, and a track. The research team was allowed access into each of 6 class periods taught by a PE specialist at the school. Participants One hundred and one (55 boys, 46 girls; age = 12.0 ± 0.8 years) middle school (grades 6-8) PE students participated in the study. School administration permission was granted and subjects were
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tasks.23 This scale included 4 items designed to assess interest-enjoyment of recently completed PA and 4 items that assess the participant’s perceived competence in each activity. Scaling for the items used a 7-point Likert-type scale that allows respondents to indicate agreement with statements regarding enjoyment of the activity and perceived competence after performing the activity.23 The scale included statements such as, ‘‘I enjoyed doing this activity very much,’’ and ‘‘I think I am pretty good at this activity.’’ The choices for the scale were formatted as follows: ‘‘not true at all,’’ ‘‘somewhat true,’’ and ‘‘very true.’’ The IMI was chosen as a reliable tool for assessing individual perceptions of enjoyment and competence during PA.23 These measures have demonstrated excellent reliability in previous research, with a coefficient alpha for interest-enjoyment at (.84) and perceived competence at (.80).23
solicited based on the permission of the PE specialist. Each youth signed an assent form and obtained a signed informed consent form from a parent or legal guardian. Research protocols and written permission from the school and PE specialist were submitted and approved by the Institutional Review Board. Each subject involved in the study followed his/her daily routine for PE class. This class started with dress out, where subjects are allowed 5 minutes to dress and meet in the gym for roll call. As each subject was called they were equipped with an accelerometer that was then turned on by the researcher and this began the first minute of activity counting. The youths were then escorted to the outdoor playing field designated for PE class. Instrumentation All activity counts were collected using the Stayhealthy RT3™ accelerometer (Monrovia, CA). Accelerometers provide objective, nonreactive and reusable tools for assessing PA.21 Triaxial accelerometers have been found to perform equally well on children and adolescents.21 These devices are clipped to the waistband at the hip level or worn as a belt and function to detect triaxial (forward, lateral, and vertical) movement. Accelerometers are also known to detect various intermittent activity patterns, characteristically applying to the adolescent.22 Additionally, these accelerometers are designed to detect both the patterns of PA and total activity.22 Research suggests that 3-dimensional accelerometers provide better evaluations of free play activities in children than heart rate monitors and uniaxial accelerometers.21 The accelerometer is preloaded with height, weight, age and sex of the participant. The metabolic equivalent of task (MET) was used as an index to determine energy expenditure via measurement of exercise intensity. Moderate intensity was defined as MET values between 3.0 and 5.9 and vigorous intensity was defined as a MET value 6.0 or greater, which is based on guidelines for the adolescent population21 (Table 1). Enjoyment and competence were measured using the 2 perceived choice subscales of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI), a multidimensional measure of subjects’ experience with experimental
Procedure Each participant involved in the study followed normal daily routines for PE class, with the exception of the use of accelerometers and the brief questionnaire related to competence and enjoyment. Days associated with data collection occurred upon completion of several days of instruction and game play for each sport unit. Specifically, a typical sport unit within this school was delivered over a 3-week time frame, with 1 week each dedicated to learning the sport, practicing the skill, and game play. Importantly, flag football (FF) and BB are common youth sports and typically included within PE curriculums, while FR is a new sport to the area and school district. Therefore, members of a local rugby organization (Rugby4Life) were on campus to provide expertise and practical assistance to the PE specialist during the FR unit. During each of the PE instructor’s classes students were seated for roll. Accelerometers were distributed to participating students during this time. Student demographic information (eg sex, age, height, and weight) was measured before the unit began for the participating students. Accelerometers were readied for use by research staff before the lesson began. Students were asked to clip the accelerometers to their waistband and were taught to ignore the devices during the class and not to play with, tap, or take off the accelerometers. Participants wore accelerometers for the entire class period and returned them to the researchers upon completion of the class activity. Researchers downloaded the activity data to a laptop computer immediately and pre-programed the accelerometers before next class period of data collection. The activity duration cut-points were determined individually at the minute when activity ceased. The participants then completed the 8-item enjoyment and competence questionnaires printed on
Table 1. Physiological and Perceptual Responses to Sport Activity Flag Rugby Basketball Flag Football (FR) (BB) (FF)
Trial Mean + SD Mean + SD Mean + SD Differences
MET Level Enjoyment Competence
6.0± 1.5 6.2± 1.6 6.0± 1.5
5.4± 1.8 5.2± 1.8 5.2± 1.7
4.9± 1.3 5.4± 1.7 5.3± 1.6
FR> FF= BB FR> FF= BB FR> FF= BB
All differences between trials are reported at the p < .01 level.
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cardstock paper. They were encouraged to ask questions about the questionnaires and were reminded to respond to each item honestly and independently and to base their ratings on their experiences of the physical activities. They were also informed and assured that their responses would not be shared with anyone, including their teachers, for any purposes and that their responses would not be used for grading. Students participated in 3 different sport units across a 9-week period. Each unit (FR, FF, or BB) lasted 3 weeks, and teachers spent time teaching students the skills and strategies necessary to play each game well. The research team measured participant activity on the last day of each sport unit while students were engaged in game play. If a youth missed any of the 3 data collection days, she or he was dropped from the study. Statistical Analysis The independent variable for this research study was the type of sport activity (FR, FF, or BB) and the dependent variables were PA intensity, enjoyment, and competence. Analysis of the data proceeded in 3 phases utilizing Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS, Chicago, IL), version 19. The first phase allowed for a determination of the internal consistency of the enjoyment and competence measures. The second phase involved separate 1-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) on the dependent variables. The final phase involved planned contrasts in the form of dependent t tests when significant differences were noted within the ANOVA. When all data were collected, SPSS software was used to organize and analyze the results of the study. The criterion for significance for all tests was set at p < .01 to control for the increased probability of committing a Type I error.
RESULTS Cronbach’s alpha reliability for internal consistency for enjoyment was determined to be (.94) for FF, (.95) for BB, and (.97) for FR. Reliability scores for competency were determined to be (.90) for FF, (.93) for BB, and (.94) for FR. These results indicated excellent reliability of the competence and enjoyment subscales of the IMI. Descriptive results from the ANOVA indicate that mean scores of participants’ perceived competence and enjoyment were above the midpoint. These results suggest that, on average, participants exhibited moderate to high competence and enjoyment toward each of the 3 sport activities they experienced in their PE classes. Additionally, results related to MET values indicate that all sports produced activity responses that were at least moderately intense, with rugby making the criterion for vigorous intensity. The ANOVA for exercise intensity revealed a significant main effect for sport type (p < .001). Journal of School Health
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Planned contrasts indicated a significant difference between FR and FF (p < .001), but no significant difference between FF and BB (p = .023) or BB and FR (p = .109). The ANOVA for subject enjoyment also revealed a significant main effect for sport type (p < .001). Planned contrasts indicated that subject enjoyment was significantly higher in FR than in FF (p < .001) and BB (p < .001). However, there was no significant difference between enjoyment of BB and FF (p = .481). Similar to the findings for intensity and enjoyment, the ANOVA for perceived competence revealed a significant main effect for sport type (p < .001). Planned contrasts indicated that participants felt significantly more competent playing FR than FF or BB. However, there was no significant difference between enjoyment of BB and FF.
DISCUSSION The rates of childhood overweightness and obesity have become a topic of concern for the nation. The reduction of PA in PE at the middle school level has contributed to the overall decline in PA in adolescents.2 There is an immediate need to find a solution to increase adolescent PA. The purpose of this research study was to compare different sports games played during PE. Research suggests that enjoyment of activity is related to adherence of the activity13 and sports are found to be enjoyable among adolescents.12 Additionally, PE classes appear to be more popular when adolescents are taught various sports activities that maintain their interest.2 Some sports activities taught at an early age and others are learned later in life based on exposure to new sports and ease of learning. Whereas skill development can be improved, FR is a sport all ages can learn.20 The participants in this study had previous experience with traditional sports such as BB and FF, as they were included in the district-wide PE curriculum. However, FR was an alternative sport not included in the required PE curricula. Therefore, this research supports existing perspectives that sports game play is beneficial for adolescents.24 The differences found among the three sports in this study demonstrated that FR is on average more enjoyable than BB and FF. FR appears to be more vigorous and participants felt more competent in the game. It is presumed that the participants may have felt more competent in FR game because it was easy to learn and had relatively few rules. The presence of expert instructors from the local rugby organization during portions of the rugby unit may have impacted perceptual ratings. Likewise, it is possible the subjects found the sport more interesting because of its novelty. This social influence could limit boredom and the formation of negative attitudes. Such possibilities are plausible within the cognitive evaluation framework
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that underpins the research design and consistent with cognitive evaluation theory.14,15 Future studies can have confidence that a highquality accelerometer can be a reliable instrument for measuring adolescent activity. For this study, the tool was useful for energy expenditure as a measure of PA intensity. The activity counts were averaged beginning with the first minute of use and ending on the last full minute of activity. It may be important for future studies that activity cut points be established prior to data collection, rather than at activity cessation. Whereas most students in this school were normal weight, there may have been some that were overweight based on height and weight measurements. The results of this study confirm that adolescents enjoy playing sports such as FF, BB, and FR. An important consideration from the findings is that adolescents participating in each of the 3 sports achieved intensity recommendations.25 This study contributes to research as it details the behaviors of adolescent PA patterns in a PE class sample that is considered of mostly normal weight. In future studies, it would be important to measure and analyze other sports and the role that gender differences may play given the type of sport offered in PE. The difference between middle school male and female activity based on sport enjoyment may be an important variable for future studies. It may also be important to collect PA data on additional school days for each of the 3 sports. Specifically, additional data may detail the differences in activity from the beginning of the sport unit and at the end of the sport unit. Because the first 2 weeks of each sport unit the students were still learning skill, it is likely they may not be as active as when they are in free play in the last week of activity.
IMPLICATIONS FOR SCHOOL HEALTH The benefits of PA in adolescents as well as the relationship between enjoyment and continuation of activity are well documented in research.12,13,16,24 Sports games are found to be interesting to adolescents.13 Therefore, it is important adolescents are taught various sport activities in PE. School PE instructors should provide the opportunity for adolescents to try different activities, thereby facilitating PA adherence. PA adherence in adolescents not only benefit youth health but also enhances motor skill development and increases the likelihood of developing self-efficacy that is important for sustained participation in various activities throughout an individual’s lifetime.2,12,14,24 On the basis of the results of this study, FR is a sport that should be considered in a middle school PE curriculum because students reported high levels of competence and enjoyment. The students should be allowed free game playtime after learning skills related to the game. Additionally, 822 •
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students maintained appropriate levels of PA intensity and duration. PE should allow students to accrue suggested levels of daily PA for health benefits. Human Subjects Approval Statement Permission granted by the University of South Florida’s Institutional Review Board, 2010.
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17. McKenzie TL, Sallis JF, Prochaska JJ, Conway TL, Marshall SJ, Rosengard P. Evaluation of a two-year middle-school physical education intervention: M-SPAN. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004;36(8):1382-1388. 18. Pate RR, Ward DS, Saunders RP, Felton G, Dishman RK, Dowda M. Promotion of physical activity among high-school girls: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Public Health. 2005;95(9):1582-1587. 19. Sallis JF, Mackenzie TL, Alcaraz JE, Kolody B, Faucette N, Hovell MF. The effects of a 2-year physical education program (SPARK) on physical activity and fitness in elementary school students. Am J Public Health. 1997;87(8):1328-1334. 20. Mathesius P, Strand B. Touch rugby: an alternative activity in physical education. JOPERD. 1994;65(4):55. 21. Sirard JR, Pate RR. Physical activity assessment in children and adolescents. Sports Med. 2001;31(6):439-454.
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22. Trost SG. Objective measurement of physical activity in youth: current issues, future directions. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2001;29(1):32-36. 23. McAuley E, Duncan T, Tammen VV. Psychometric properties of the intrinsic motivation inventory in a competitive sport setting: a confirmatory factor analysis. Res Q Exerc Sport. 1989;60(1):4858. 24. Hoffman JR, Kang J, Faigenbaum AD, Ratamess NA. Recreational sports participation is associated with enhanced physical fitness in children. Res Sports Med. 2005;13(2):149-161. 25. Haskell WL, Lee I, Pate RR, et al. Physical activity and public health: updated recommendation for adults from the American College of Sports Medicine and the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2007;39(8):1423-1434.
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