Author's personal copy Forensic Science International 222 (2012) 399.e1–399.e5
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Forensic Anthropology Population Data
Shrunken head (tsantsa): A complete forensic analysis procedure P. Charlier a,b,*, I. Huynh-Charlier c, L. Brun d, C. Herve´ b, G. Lorin de la Grandmaison a a
Department of Forensic Pathology and Medicine, University Hospital R. Poincare´ (AP-HP, UVSQ), 92380 Garches, France Department of Medical Ethics, University of Paris 5, 45 Saints-Pe`res street, 75006 Paris, France c Department of Radiology, CHU Pitie´ Salpe´trie`re (AP-HP), boulevard de l’hoˆpital, 75013 Paris, France d Department of Pathology, University Hospital, Parakou, Benin b
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Article history: Received 14 December 2011 Received in revised form 5 March 2012 Accepted 4 June 2012 Available online 27 June 2012
Based on the analysis of shrunken heads referred to our forensic laboratory for anthropological expertise, and data from both anthropological and medical literature, we propose a complete forensic procedure for the analysis of such pieces. A list of 14 original morphological criteria has been developed, based on the global aspect, color, physical deformation, anatomical details, and eventual associated material (wood, vegetal fibers, sand, charcoals, etc.). Such criteria have been tested on a control sample of 20 tsantsa (i.e. shrunken heads from the Jivaro or Shuar tribes of South America). Further complementary analyses are described such as CT-scan and microscopic examination. Such expertise is more and more asked to forensic anthropologists and practitioners in a context of global repatriation of human artifacts to native communities. ! 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Forensic anthropology Post-mortem modification Identification Tsantsa/shrunken head Authenticity Microscopy DNA analyses Repatriation Reburial Ethnology Forensic anthropology population data
1. Introduction A consequence of the multiplication of human remains repatriation to natives [1–3] is the huge increase of scientific analyses dealing with such anthropological artifacts (for example the Toi Moko or isolated mummified heads from New Zealand) generally asked to forensic departments [4]. Our laboratory was indeed involved in the examination of artifacts from Natural History Museums (Rouen and Lille), the National Natural History Museum (Paris), the Museum of the Quay Branly (Paris), and from private curators. Tsantsas, i.e. shrunken head processed by the Jivaro tribe, living southeastern Ecuador and northern Peru, are a non-negligible part of such human artifacts conserved in anthropological and ethnological institutions; they may be involved in such repatriation processes in a short term. For instance, the forensic practitioner does not have any synthesis paper giving a simple and complete methodology for the authenticity procedure, but general ones or case reports [5–9]. This
* Corresponding author at: Department of Forensic Pathology and Medicine, University Hospital R. Poincare´ (AP-HP, UVSQ), 92380 Garches, France. Tel.: +33 1 47107689; fax: +33 1 47107683. E-mail address:
[email protected] (P. Charlier). 0379-0738/$ – see front matter ! 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.06.009
is the aim of this article, based on the analysis of shrunken heads referred to our department for authenticity expertise, and further items examined only for scientific purposes and comparison data. 2. Current fabrication process Limits in the description of shrunken head production are the fact that all data are second-hands ones dated from the 17th to the mid-20th centuries, some of them being contradictory. Anyway, a global sequence can be determined: Tsantsas were made from men, women, and children. At the end of a victorious raid, just after death of the enemies, their heads were removed from the rest of the body (beheading being as close to the trunk as possible). Tropical environment obliged a quick initial process in order to prevent decomposition and putrefaction alterations: ‘‘A part was made in the hair down the center of the back of the head. Using this part as a guide, a knife was used to cut down the bone from the crown of the head to the base of the neck. At the bottom where the cut ended, the corners of the skin were turned back on each side and peeled away from the bony structure of the skull’’ [5]. Muscles and flesh were then entirely cut away, in order to remove in one piece the head and face-skin with the hair intact. This piece was turned inside out, scraped, and cleaned of all
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adhering connective tissues. After having sewn shut eyelids from the inside using fine vegetal fibers, the head and face-skin was turned right-side out. While waiting the further steps of preparation, the head-skin was deposited in cold river water, sometimes mixed with juice, vine or astringent botanical substance. Then the head-skin was put in boiling water 30 min to 2 h, in order to extract much of the fat and grease. Then the head was taken out, cooled and dried. While still warm and pliable, the skin was turned inside-out, then the inner surface was scraped with a knife, and still adherent pieces of flesh and fat, were cleaned off. Further operations were carried out in order to preserve the features of the face: the posterior incision (back of the head) mended; flexible vine loosely sewn into the skin at the base of the neck (to provide a permanent opening through which heated shrinking agents will be introduced in the following steps, and removed by cutting at the end of the process). Nostrils were sometimes plugged with cotton and/or pitch. Lips were also sealed with both symbolic and practical significance: (1) trapping the avenging spirit of the slain individual; (2) keeping it from exiting through the mouth; (3) maintaining the human look of the head by keeping prominent facial features in their proper place by preventing hot sand poured into the head not to spill out while the head was turned and manipulated [5]. Then, small rounded stones (heated in fire) and hot sand were inserted into the head, in order to sizzle and hiss skin at its contact. ‘‘The somewhat laterally compressed or slightly squashed form of the tsantsas suggests that they were held in the palm of the slayer’s hand, with his thumb and index fingers at the temples for support as the face was molded’’ [5]. The blackish color of some tsantsas may be due to hot stones used to iron the outer skin of the face, or rubbing with charcoal in order to prevent ‘‘the avenging spirit from seeing out’’ [5]. Smoking over a fire of the tsantsas was also carried out in order to provide some resistance against insects. In order to facilitate a wearing of the shrunken head around the neck of the Jivaro warrior during celebration feasts, one or two small holes in the top of the tsantsas were made with a sharp wooden needle (such artifacts being removed later during further feast). Complete realization of the process generally occurred within 2 or 3 days, giving a final head measuring about one-fourth of its original size (i.e. the equivalent of an adult fist). Skin took the appearance of tanned leather, but cracks may arise due to
important dehydratation during the long-term conservation in occidental climate. 3. Authenticity process Three successive steps of shrunken head authenticity procedure may be separated: 1. morphological analysis and search for any of the 14 criteria (may be sufficient in a majority of cases); 2. hair microscopic examination (optional); 3. skin DNA analysis (optional).
3.1. Basic examination Based on our experience of such artifacts examination, a list of 14 morphological specificities of true tsantsas can be summed up (Table 1 and Figs. 1–4). Such criteria were all based on the macroscopic examination of heads, analyzing their global aspect, color, physical deformation, anatomical details, and eventual associated material (wood, vegetal fibers, sand, charcoals, etc.). They have been chosen as easy visible, objective, and reproducible. In order to test their specificity, they all have been screened on a control sample of 20 authentic tsantsas displayed or deposed in French public institutions (Table 2). Their percentage of presence (Table 1) was: 65% (1 criteria: long suspension cord overhanging from the top of the head, or related hole), 70% (1 criteria: wooden pegs/vegetal fibers retained in the lips, or related holes), 90% (1 criteria: both eyes sewing shut from the inside), and 100% (all other 11 criteria). A global part of these criteria can be seen directly in a quick macroscopic preliminary examination. The introduction of a fiberscope into the head cavity and/or the realization of a CTscan (Fig. 5) can be useful, in order to search for any sand deposit, or any bony remnant, for example. Examination of the skin and all surface particularities may be facilitated by the use of a dissecting microscope. 3.2. Microscope examination Hair microscopic examination may be useful for distinguish human and other animals ones, human medulla being physiologically less than one third width of shaft, amorphous and mostly not
Table 1 List of all 14 diagnosis criteria for the authentification of tsantsas, with their percentage of presence in our sample of 20 pieces. Criteria 1 2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Percentage of observation in our sample (n = 20) Dark or black or brown skin color due to impregnation with charcoal dust during shrinking Wooden pegs or vegetal fibers retained in the lips (if absent or removed post-production, sets of vertically aligned corresponding holes are present just behind both the upper and lower lips) Loop of wooden vine or fiber sewn into the neck (if absent or removed postproduction, traces of suturing and/or sawing are present) Important thickness and leathery texture of the edge of the neck opening Oval shape of the neck in cross-section and/or lateral compression of the head From behind, neck and head tissues sewn together with fiber stitches Conserved anatomical details of the ear (with possibility of a earlobe hole, filled or not by a wooden tube or peg) Both eyes tightly closed (with possibility of sewing shut from the inside), skin in the surrounding cheek area being smooth with no facial down present Profusion of hairs in the nostrils Long dark hairs (or hairs which have been cut years after the shrinking process) Long suspension cord overhanging from the top of the head (or related hole) No facial painting or artistic/ethnic scar No remaining skull fragment Complete filling of internal head cavities by sand and/or charcoals
100% (n = 20) 70% (n = 14)
100% (n = 20) 100% 100% 100% 100%
(n = 20) (n = 20) (n = 20) (n = 20)
90% (n = 18) 100% 100% 65% 100% 100% 100%
(n = 20) (n = 20) (n = 13) (n = 20) (n = 20) (n = 20)
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Fig. 3. General left lateral view of an authentic tsantsa (National Museum of Natural History, Paris, N8 Inv. 8629) with the general blackish shape of the head, and the long suspension cord overhanging from the top of the skull.
extraction with phenol and chloroform, quantification, amplification and electrophoresis [12–14]. In all our cases, it was never performed because not necessary, the human character of all specimens being already sure thanks to the whole macroscopic and microscopic analyses. 4. Discussion Fig. 1. Frontal view of an authentic tsantsa (National Museum of Natural History, Paris, N8 Inv. 8627) with the brown general coloration, the long conserved hairs, profusion of hairs in the nostrils, wooden pegs closing the mouth, and both eyes tightly closed.
continuous (Fig. 6) [10]; due to post-mortem modifications arising during the shrinking of the head, new digital technologies may be particularly useful, such as the use of objective color measurement and image analysis techniques [11].
In the medical literature, little is published on the scientific authenticity testing of Jivaro tsantsas. Sauvageau et al. published a preliminary paper about the evaluation of a unique piece [6], but of limited conclusive value, such as the one by Mutter [7], and the one by Jandial et al. mainly dealing with ethnological data [8]. An older paper by Post and Daniels was specially devoted to microscopic
3.3. Genetic analysis Routine DNA analysis may also be important for confirming or excluding human origin of the piece. Usual DNA extraction and amplification techniques are then carried out after careful and limited skin sampling: digestion with proteinase K and DTT,
Fig. 2. Inferior view of an authentic tsantsa (National Museum of Natural History, Paris, N8 Inv. 8627) with the neck and head tissues sewn together with fiber stitches from behind, the oval shape of the neck section, the important thickness and leathery texture of the edge of the neck opening with sawing traces from the removal of the previous loop of wooden vine or fiber.
Fig. 4. Detail of the left ear of an authentic tsantsa (private collection under the auspices of Alain Froment) with all conserved anatomical details.
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Table 2 Presence of each 14 diagnosis criteria (morphological specificities of authentic Jivaro tsantsas) for all 20 analyzed pieces (1 = private collection under the auspices of A. Froment; 2 = 8627, Muse´um National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris; 3 = 8626, MNHN, Paris; 4 = 180710041, Muse´um d’Histoire Naturelle, Rouen; 5 = 60001269, Muse´e des confluences, Lyon; 6 = 71.1886.101.1, Muse´e du Quai Branly, Paris; 7 = 71.1964.30.1, Muse´e du Quai Branly, Paris; 8 = 71.1886.101.26, Muse´e du Quai Branly, Paris; 9 = 71.1959.0.398 X, Muse´e du Quai Branly, Paris; 10 = 71.1880.7.170, Muse´e du Quai Branly, Paris; 11 = 71.1932.108.172, Muse´e du Quai Branly, Paris; 12 = 71.1930.96.1, Muse´e du Quai Branly, Paris; 13 = 71.1959.0.397, Muse´e du Quai Branly, Paris; 14 = 71.1878.58.1, Muse´e du Quai Branly, Paris; 15 = 70.2003.11.1, Muse´e du Quai Branly, Paris; 16 = 71.1938.101.1, Muse´e du Quai Branly, Paris; 17 = 71.1947.64.1, Muse´e du Quai Branly, Paris; 18 = 71.1950.8.1 D, Muse´e du Quai Branly, Paris; 19 = 71.1951.23.1, Muse´e du Quai Branly, Paris; 20 = 995.9.1, Muse´e d’Histoire Naturelle, Lille). Criteria
Dark or black or brown skin color due to impregnation with charcoal dust during shrinking Wooden pegs or vegetal fibers retained in the lips (if absent or removed post-production, sets of vertically aligned corresponding holes are present just behind both the upper and lower lips) Loop of wooden vine or fiber sewn into the neck (if absent or removed post-production, traces of suturing and/or sawing are present) Important thickness and leathery texture of the edge of the neck opening Oval shape of the neck in cross-section and/or lateral compression of the head From behind, neck and head tissues sewn together with fiber stitches Conserved anatomical details of the ear (with possibility of a earlobe hole, filled or not by a wooden tube or peg) Both eyes tightly closed (with possibility of sewing shut from the inside), skin in the surrounding cheek area being smooth with no facial down present Profusion of hairs in the nostrils Long dark hairs (or hairs which have been cut years after the shrinking process) Long suspension cord overhanging from the top of the head (or related hole) No facial painting or artistic/ethnic scar No remaining skull fragment Complete filling of internal head cavities by sand and/or charcoals
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examination of skin samples from South America, including tsantsas [9]. Such papers are non-useful for a forensic anthropologist dealing with authentification process of an isolated shrunken head, as no complete process is described but rather isolated data. Data from forensic anthropological analyses of illegally sold human remains are also disponible [15,16], or of soldiers from the WW2 [17]; they too may be of some interest in such authenticity procedure, for example for the evaluation of the post-mortem delay.
Fig. 5. CT-scan (frontal section) of an authentic tsantsa (private collection under the auspices of Alain Froment) showing no conserved bone fragment and filling of the internal head cavities with a dense material corresponding to sand and/or charcoals.
Fig. 6. Microscopic aspect of a human hair section from an authentic tsantsa (private collection under the auspices of Alain Froment) (magnification " 200, coloration with hematein, eosin, and saffron).
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One has to be aware that non-ceremonial and tourist head exist, that may be processed by the Jivaro tribe or others, presenting only some of the previous criteria (with an effort to retain realistic proportions as much as possible). More, fake ones may be seen, presenting no one of these criteria (made of plastic, for example, or animal skin), or occidental ones, such as these carried out by the Nazis on Polish prisoners from the Buchenwald camp during WW2 [18]. Only one non-human authentic kind of tsantsas exists, made of tree sloth (but never monkey), who supported the same process; they were created by Jivaro boys as part of their passage ceremony to manhood, or by adults after a kill during a raid without possibility of recovering the victim’s head. One item is, for example, conserved in the Quai Branly Museum in Paris (N8 Inv. 71.1938.67.1), collected after the Bertrand Flornoy mission in Amazonian territories (1938). The importance of such authenticity procedures is explained by the fact that false or non-ceremonial heads may not been involved in eventual repatriation processes (an important consequence for museum curators and private owners). Conflict of interest None. Funding This research was partially funded by a special grant from the AFPP (Paris). Acknowledgements To Marie-Paule Imberti (Muse´e des Confluences, Lyon), Se´bastien Minchin (Muse´um d’Histoire Naturelle, Rouen), Alain Froment (Muse´um National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris), Christophe Moulherat (Muse´e du Quai Branly, Paris), and David Verhulst (Muse´e d’Histoire Naturelle, Lille) who authorized the access to the tsantsas.
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References [1] R. Welsch, Confessions of a Wannabe (American Folklore Society Presidential Invited Plenary Address October 2009), J. Am. Folk 124 (2011) 19–30. [2] A.M. Cantwell, ‘Who knows the power of his bones’. Reburial redux, Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 925 (2000) 79–119. [3] D.A. Mihesuah (Ed.), Repatriation Reader: Who Owns American Indian remains?, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, 2000. [4] S.D. Ousley, W.T. Billeck, R.E. Hollinger, Federal repatriation legislation and the role of physical anthropology in repatriation, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. Suppl. 41 (2005) 2–32. [5] J.L. Castner, Shrunken Heads, Feline Press, Gainesville, FL, 2002. [6] A. Sauvageau, C. Kremer, V. Brochu, F. Julien, S. Racette, Jivaro Tsantsas or shrunken head—an expertise of authenticity evaluation, Am. J. Forensic Med. Pathol. 30 (2009) 72–74. [7] G.L. Mutter, Jivaro tsantsas, authentic, and forged: a study of two shrunken heads in the mutter museum, Trans. Stud. Coll. Physicians Phila. 43 (1975) 78–82. [8] R. Jandial, S.A. Hugues, H.E. Aryan, L.F. Marshall, M.L. Levy, The science of shrinking human head: tribal warfare and revenge among the South American Jivaro-Shuar, Neurosurgery 55 (2004) 1215–1220. [9] P.W. Post, F. Daniels Jr., Histological and histochemical examination of American Indian scalps mummies, and a shrunken head, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 30 (1969) 269–293. [10] I. Sato, S. Nakaki, K. Murata, H. Takeshita, T. Mukai, Forensic hair analysis to identify animal species on a case of pet animal abuse, Int. J. Leg. Med. 124 (2010) 249–256. [11] E. Brooks, B. Comber, I. McNaught, J. Robertson, Digital imaging and image analysis applied to numerical applications in forensic hair examination, Sci. Justice 51 (2011) 28–37. [12] M.T.P. Gilbert, L.P. Tomsho, S. Rendulic, et al., Whole-genome shotgun sequencing of mitochondria from ancient hair shafts, Science 317 (2007) 1927–1930. [13] D.Y. Yang, B. Eng, J.S. Waye, J.C. Dudar, S.R. Saunders, D.N.A. Improved, Extraction from ancient bones using silica-based spin columns, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 105 (1998) 539–543. [14] H. Malmstro¨m, M.T.P. Gilbert, M.G. Thomas, et al., Ancient DNA reveals lack of continuity between Neolithic Hunter–gatherers and contemporary, Scand. Curr. Biol. 19 (2009) 1–5. [15] R.M. Seidemann, C.M. Stojanowski, F.J. Rich, The identification of a human skull recovered from an eBay sale, J. Forensic Sci. 54 (2009) 1247–1253. [16] A.K. Huxley, M. Finnegan, Human remains sold to the highest bidder! A snapshot of the buying and selling of human skeletal remains on Ebay, an Internet auction site, J. Forensic Sci. 49 (2004) 17–20. [17] J.U. Palo, M. Hedman, N. So¨derholm, A. Sajantila, Repatriation and identification of the Finnish World War II soldiers, Croat. Med. J. 48 (2007) 528–535. [18] L. Douglas, The shrunken head of Buchenwald: icons of atrocity at Nuremberg, Representations 63 (1998) 39–64.
