Qualifications: a fast-track to hotel general manager?

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Qualifications: a fast-track to hotel general manager?

Qualifications

Sarah Harper The Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen Business School, Aberdeen, Scotland

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Caroline Brown Dunavon House Hotel, Aberdeen, Scotland, and

Wilson Irvine The Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen Business School, Aberdeen, Scotland Abstract Purpose – To examine the role of formal qualifications in the career development of contemporary hotel general managers in Scotland. Design/methodology/approach – A questionnaire was used which provided a sound basis for comparing the opinions, performance and career paths of both formally qualified and unqualified general managers. Findings – Key findings identified that formal qualifications were an integral part of career development. They facilitated career moves between companies and allowed prospective managers to “fast-track” to general management status. Formal qualifications were considered particularly beneficial in developing those functional managerial skills required to succeed. Practical implications – At this present time of change within the industry, the existing move towards a more business perspective in the role of hotel general manager may in fact be influencing the development of managers’ mid-career. The actual importance today of food and beverage positions may be far less than it has been during the career development of those managers within the sample. If this proves to be the case, there may be a developing trend of managers entering from outside the industry, directly to general management positions. This poses implications for the seemingly “established” career path of hotel general manager through food and beverage functions and deputy/assistant managerial positions. Originality/value – The conclusions may also present implications for educationists trying to meet the needs of the industry in developing effective managers and for individuals in the development of their careers. Keywords Hospitality services, Hotel and catering industry, Career development, Qualifications, Scotland Paper type Research paper

Introduction Although there is a wealth of research that has explored the career development of managers in the hospitality industry (Arnaldo, 1981; Guerrier, 1987; Guerrier and Lockwood, 1990; Ladkin, and Riley, 1996; Ladkin, 2000) few studies have explored career development related specifically to variables such as educational background and the relative significance, if any, of formal qualifications. The last 30 years or so have revealed considerable developments in the UK higher education system. The most significant has perhaps been the aspiration by successive governments to create a system of mass higher education. The 1960s saw hospitality

International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management Vol. 17 No. 1, 2005 pp. 51-64 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0959-6119 DOI 10.1108/09596110510577671

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education progress to degree level with courses first offered at the University of Surrey, followed by the University of Strathclyde. Today, numerous universities and colleges offer programmes leading to qualifications in the management of hospitality (www.chme.co.uk). As such, an increasing number of university graduates with specialist qualifications are seeking employment in an environment where they can make use of their newly developed business skills. As a consequence, they increasingly demand entry higher up the hotel management career ladder and are set to challenge the traditional “Bureaucratic Model” of career development within the hospitality industry. The aim of this research paper is to compare the opinions, performance and career paths of qualified and unqualified general managers and to examine the role of formal qualifications in the career development of contemporary hotel general managers in Scotland. The paper considers “Career Development” theory within the hospitality industry and examines the current debate regarding a “Traditional” versus “Modern” approach. Career development Career development patterns vary between individuals, occupations and societies and are a function of structural opportunity and individual choice (Arthur et al., 1989). A career can be defined as: . . . the pattern or sequence of work roles of an individual and typically implies upward movement and advancement (Torrington and Hall, 1998).

Traditional pathways reflect the “Bureaucratic Model” of career development and were normally presented as a vertical career ladder, using age limits and qualifications for entry on to certain points of the ladder. Joining the pathway at other than the normal entry point was very difficult. It was common for an individual to establish a long-term career with one employer. The hotel industry has traditionally been recognised as one in which employees who start at the bottom of the management career ladder can work their way up to the top-level general manager position (Swanljung, 1981; Ruddy, 1990). However, the nature of the hospitality industry has long since challenged the bureaucratic model of career development and concept of long term careers within one organisation (Ladkin and Riley, 1996). In an industry where transferability of skills is high and knowledge is homogeneously distributed about the pyramid, it has been argued that career patterns are likely to involve a high rate of mobility. The notion of holding one job and remaining with one work organisation for life has given way to a pattern of periodic job changes (Riley and Ladkin, 1994). Research by Swanljung (1981) suggests that for the most successful hotel executives fast-track to the corporate office involves strategically-timed career moves between companies, resulting in higher-level positions and broadening work experience. These issues of mobility and transferability of skills challenge the traditional bureaucratic model of career development. They introduce the concept that entry to the management career ladder from outside the industry (Kaplan, 1982), or at a higher level as a result of specialist training or qualifications may be possible (Baum, 1989). These contrasting theories relate to the two much debated “schools of thought” on possible career routes to senior management level within the British hotel industry. Guerrier (1987) identified these as; the “traditional manager” who has served a lengthy

apprenticeship, worked in all departments of the hotel and the “modern-day manager” who has gained some form of formal management qualification and arguably adopts more of a “fast-track” approach to general manager position. Traditional vs modern Fuller (1983) supports the traditional manager route and suggests that a remarkably high proportion of top managers began their careers in operative or craft jobs. It seems unlikely that any other major British industry benefits to the extent that the hotel and catering industry does from this arguably unique blend of practical experience and the kind of executive qualities, which develop the “hard way”. A study of hotel managers by Ruddy (1989) revealed that the managers placed qualities related to their behaviour and personal characteristics such as leadership qualities and motivation much higher than “education” on the list of key career influences in becoming successful. Professional qualifications also rated low in a study in Ireland, where up to 60 per cent of those in hotel management had received no formal recognised education for the business (Baum, 1989). These findings challenge research carried out by Gamble and Messenger (1990) where hotel general managers strongly agreed: . . . nationally recognised qualifications helped career prospects (Gamble and Messenger, 1990).

Similarly, findings by Swanljung (1981) anticipated that increased competition for management positions within the hospitality industry would result in an “MBA” becoming the key to success for future graduates. A supporter of the modern management approach: Kaplan (1982) proposed that changes in the hotel industry such as non-service sector “buying in” would result in the manager no longer being the “old hands on” experienced manager, but rather a highly skilled professional who is trained not only in the operational elements of the industry but also in general management. Similarly, Goodman and Spragues (1991) proposed that the rapid consolidation of the hotel industry via chain operators has changed the set of skills the typical management recruit needs to enter the industry: In addition to concepts such as FIT’s, fats and folios, hotel management are expected to understand spreadsheets, psychographics and strategic planning (Goodman and Spragues (1991).

Gamble et al. (1994) also suggested a changing emphasis of European management skills from traditional craft skills to more functional managerial skills; the outcome being a more business oriented hospitality manager, a team facilitator rather than someone with traditional skills. This is arguably reflected at University level by the general decrease in the inclusion of traditional skills such as food and beverage preparation and service within the hospitality management curriculum. Although the situation varies between establishments recent years have witnessed a: . . . continuing fall in the unit of resource and many centres have reduced the amount of practical activity (Rimmington, 1999).

The increasing business perspective adopted by managers is also identified by Guerrier and Lockwood (1989). They argue that the way in which hotel managers are trained and developed continues to reinforce an operational, rather than business

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perspective. An argument further supported by Ladkin and Riley (1996) and Nebel et al. (1995). They suggest that increasing numbers of graduates were being produced who had a business orientation were looking for their first job in a challenging environment. However, they propose they are treated like any other new entrant to the industry and even though they may already have an underpinning of theoretical knowledge they were still expected to complete their “apprenticeship”. This argument contradicts Baum’s (1989) earlier suggestions and supports the bureaucratic theory whereby entry to the management career ladder at anywhere other than the bottom is increasingly difficult. Simultaneously, the continued tension and debate between the educationalists and industrialists on the extent to which the curricula of “hospitality management” qualifications meet the requirements of the industry is highlighted (Rimmington, 1999). Continued arguments centre around the hospitality educators, who in response to changing needs have increased emphasis on business subjects in course curricula, aiming to provide their graduates with the increasing business managerial skills required to succeed. Representatives of the industry argue however that: . . . graduates, the so-called managers lack the practical experience needed. . . and feel that accepting a position at craft level (where they would gain the experience they need) would be menial and beneath them (Buchicchio, 1991). . . . they fail to recognise that that kind of grounding will put them in an excellent position to reach a senior level (Rimmington, 1999).

This issue is certainly an area for consideration, as its impacts on the general consensus by which formal qualifications are perceived within the industry as well as the role they play in influencing career development. These theories and arguments, could pose considerable implications for the career planning and aspirations of perspective future hotel general managers. This paper attempts to address these issues and ascertain the importance of formal qualifications by investigating the career development patterns of hotel general managers in Scotland. Methodology Due to the wide geographical distribution of the sample population throughout Scotland and the limited time available to conduct an appropriate number of personal interviews; a postal questionnaire was selected as the most suitable method of primary research. The questionnaire was designed for hotel general managers in accordance with secondary research findings. The first draft questionnaire was piloted to five hotel general managers (not included in the main sample) and minor adjustments made to the questions and layout as necessary. The questionnaire was then mailed to the general managers of all hotels in Scotland with 50 bedrooms or more, as taken from the Scottish Tourist Board: “The Official Where To Stay Guide 2001” (Scottish Tourist Board, 2001). This provided a total sample size of 96 hotels and although an exact figure for all hotels with more than 50 bedrooms in Scotland could not be found, was considered to be satisfactorily representative of the total population. A personalised covering letter and pre-paid reply envelope were included to encourage respondents.

The decision to exclude the smaller hotels (i.e. those with less than 50 bedrooms) was made based on a previous study carried out by Ladkin and Riley (1996), which revealed that many of the managers of these smaller hotels owned the property and had either worked there for their entire life or had come from outside the industry. As the aim of the study was to examine the role of formal qualifications in the “career development” of contemporary hotel general managers, it was important to target those who had experienced a degree of mobility in their careers, something which managers of the smaller bed and breakfast hotels in general had not. Results Of the 96 questionnaires distributed 54 were returned, representing a 56 per cent response rate. This can be considered representative given the busy work routine of potential respondents and the mail-based methodology for which a response rate of 30 per cent is acceptable (Owen and Jones, 1990, in Saunders et al., 1997). There were some limitations in the primary research method adopted: notably non-respondents and bias. Moser and Kaltan (1971) suggest: Non response is a problem because of the likelihood – repeatedly confirmed in practice, that people who do not return questionnaires differ from those who do! (Moser and Kaltan, 1971).

and as a consequence may not be truly representative of the total sample population. Data reliability can also be affected by “bias”, as respondents may “answer to please” or because they believe certain responses are more socially desirable. In 1978, Dillman argued that this is relatively unlikely to occur in self-administered questionnaires particularly where anonymity is maintained: They may however discuss their answers with others, thereby contaminating their response (Dillman, 1978, in Saunders et al., 1997).

The questionnaire was coded and analysed using SPSS – Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. The sample revealed the following characteristics: 50 per cent were between the ages of 35-44, there was almost a 3:1 ratio of men to women and 65 per cent of the population were married. The mean duration spent in the hospitality industry was 18 years and four months and the average age of becoming a hotel general manager was 29. A total of 76 per cent of the sample had a formal qualification at “higher education” level or above, with 38.9 per cent holding a HND. Although poorly answered, of the 49 per cent of the sample who did identify their course specialisation: 66 per cent had a hospitality specific qualification. A total of 75 per cent of managers with a formal qualification had gained practical experience in the hospitality industry through a “work placement” period. This was regarded almost without exception as invaluable for developing “floor skills” and “practical experience”. Those who did rate their experience “low” identified the cause as: “poor organisation” and/or an “unstructured set-up”. Managers without a formal qualification, on average reached their first position as hotel general manager at the age of 28 years and one month, marginally sooner than their qualified counterparts, who were 29 years and four months. Excluding time spent at college/university the qualified manager took a mean nine years and two months to

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reach a general management position, with the actual times ranging from five to 18 years. The unqualified manager by comparison took an average 11 years and ten months to reach the same position with the actual times taken ranging from seven to 21 years. Table I illustrates the “job role” occupied by each of the respondents (and percentage who held that role) in each of their previous four positions of employment and identifies the most significant positions in the career paths of hotel general managers. A considerable proportion of the respondents had held a position as “Deputy”/”Assistant” and/or “Resident” manager prior to becoming a general manager. The results also highlighted the importance of food and beverage/restaurant/bars and or catering management roles in career paths. Mobility was relatively high overall with a mean five career moves in 14 years and three months, this equates to a move every two years and eight months. The range was from three months to 15 years. The majority of those questioned “agreed” (61.1 per cent) that “formal qualifications” were “an integral part of a managers” career development within the hospitality industry”. Of the total sample, 25.9 per cent “disagreed” and just 7.4 per cent “strongly disagreed” with this statement. Those aged under 34 years in particular were most supportive, with 72.2 per cent of this age group “agreeing”, compared to just 55.6 per cent of those aged over 35 years. A considerable percentage of the sample: 83.4 per cent “agreed” that “Today’s role of a hotel general manager encouraged a greater business than operational perspective and consequently demanded a higher level of technical and business skills”. A marginal 11.2 per cent “disagreed” with this statement. This opinion was consistent between all age groups. To the statement “Formal vocational qualifications are encouraging more of a “fast-track” progression to the role of hotel general manager, with fewer managers working their way up within the industry”: 64 per cent of the sample “agreed” and just 29.6 per cent “disagreed”. Those aged over 35 particularly supported this statement. It is interesting to note how opinion towards these three differed between those respondents who had a formal qualification and those who did not. Of the personal transferable skills: communication, time management, decision making and leadership qualities, formal qualifications were considered most beneficial in developing “Time Management” skills (64.8 per cent – considered “beneficial” or “very beneficial”), followed by “Decision Making” (61.1 per cent) and “Communication” (57.4 per cent). Just 44.5 per cent considered formal qualifications “beneficial” in the development of “Leadership Qualities”. By contrast, formal qualifications were considered far more beneficial in developing functional managerial skills. A significant proportion of the sample (88.9 per cent) considered formal qualifications to be particularly “beneficial” in developing financial management skills. Strategic planning was also highly rated at 87 per cent, while sales and marketing and human resource management received 81.5 per cent and 81.4 per cent respectively. Both groups held similar views on the significance of qualifications in developing personal transferable and functional managerial skills. The implications of proportionally fewer unqualified managers within the sample were taken into consideration when comparing trends between qualified and

54 100 35 64.8 21 38.9 9 16.7 7 13 72 33.3 6 11.1 14 25.9 17 31.5 12 22.2 49 22.7

1 1.9 1 1.9 3 5.6 2 3.7 7 3.2

Front office mgr

2 3.7 4 7.4 4 7.4 1 1.9 11 5.1

Operations mgr

2 3.7 1 1.9 8 14.8 5 9.3 16 7.4

Food and beverage/ restaurant/ bars/ catering mgr

2 3.7 1 1.9 0 0 2 3.7 5 2.3

Rooms mgr

0 0 1 1.9 1 1.9 2 3.7 5 2.3

Sales and marketing mgr

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1.9 1 0.5

HRM mgr

1 1.9 3 5.6 6 11.1 3 5.6 13 6.0

Other (hotels)

1 1.9 5 9.3 1 1.9 4 7.4 11 5.1

4 7.4 3 5.6 5 9.3 15 27.8 27 12.5

Other (not hotels) Incomplete

Note: a Current position excluded from calculations. Table illustrates the number of respondents who held each particular job role in the last four career moves, prior to their current position as hotel general manager

Current positiona (%) Position 4 (%) Position 3 (%) Position 2 (%) Position 1 (%) Freq. total (%)

Deputy/ assistant/ Hotel resident general mgr manager

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Table I. Career paths of hotel general managers

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unqualified managers. However, there was a strong consistency in many of the findings, despite the relatively small sample size. Discussion of results Support for formal qualifications Over three-quarters of the sample population (76 per cent) were formally qualified suggesting a relative importance of formal qualifications in the career development of hotel general managers in Scotland. This is a stark contrast to Baum’s (1989) findings where just 40 per cent of general managers held a formal qualification and accordingly considered qualifications of “little importance” for career development. This discrepancy may be due to the fact that 80 per cent of hotels in Ireland are small businesses with less than 40 bedrooms in size (Baum, 1989) – precisely those that were excluded in this study. More optimistically, it suggests a positive reflection of the drive by government in recent years to recognise the importance of qualifications (Thomas and Harris, 2001). Results reflect considerable agreement (61.1 per cent) that formal qualifications were an integral part of career development within the hospitality industry and support similar findings identified by Gamble and Messenger (1990). Support for formal qualifications as an integral part of career development differed radically between managers. Those who were qualified were more supportive of the role of formal qualifications than those who were unqualified. Notably, almost a quarter of respondents in each category contradicted the general opinion and supported the importance of qualifications despite being unqualified themselves or vice versa. This would suggest that there was very much a dichotomy of opinion with regard to the significance of formal qualifications in career development. The relatively recent development of degree courses and move for “mass higher education” would suggest that the breakdown of qualified versus unqualified managers would be balanced towards the younger age group. This was not the case. The largest proportion of unqualified hotel general managers was under 34 years of age (75 per cent), only 25 per cent were qualified. One would similarly expect that older managers (over 45 years of age) were proportionally less qualified, but again this did not prove to be the case. Ladkin and Riley (1996) and Nebel et al. (1995), found similar results. Their research suggested that despite hospitality graduates being qualified in business operations they were still expected take time to become conditioned into the operational perspective. Meanwhile, those individuals and prospective managers who entered the industry unqualified had by comparison moved further along this “operational training stage” and achieved their first managerial positions earlier. This theory is supported by the authors’ findings, unqualified managers were achieving their first managerial position at a younger age than their qualified counterparts. When considering the 35-44 year age group, however, far more of the graduates had progressed through their “operational training stage”, reached hotel general manager positions and out-numbered their unqualified counterparts. This trend continued in the 45-years plus group. When considering if qualifications encouraged more of a fast-track to management position as suggested by Swanljung (1981), almost two-thirds of the sample agreed that they did. It is interesting to note that opinion on this was balanced between qualified and unqualified. Analysis by age revealed that those aged under 34 years were more

supportive of the notion that formal qualifications were an integral part of career development, although they did not agree that formal qualifications were a “fast-track” to a general management position. Further research to establish the beliefs of this younger age group would be beneficial. Although not statistically significant, the results suggest there was almost unanimous agreement between both groups of managers that “Today’s role of general manager encourages more of a business than operational perspective”. This clearly supports arguments by Gamble et al. (1994) and Guerrier and Lockwood (1989) who suggested a move away from craft skills and traditional “hands on” operational perspective to a more functional, business orientated hotel manager. Formal qualifications were strongly recognised as particularly beneficial in developing functional managerial skills with no less than 81 per cent support for any individual skill. There was also support for the role of qualifications in developing “personal skills”, however, opinions were rather more divided with a maximum 64.8 per cent support for any one individual skill. In particular, formal qualifications were deemed least beneficial in developing “Leadership qualities” which were considered more of a personal characteristic that could not be formally “taught”. It could be argued that this indirectly supports the importance of work experience in developing these competencies. Findings also suggest that the inclusion of a “structured work experience” period within the course curriculum is a highly practised and strongly supported method of developing personal skills. Of qualified managers, 75 per cent had undertaken a “work placement period as part of their course curriculum. It was regarded almost without exception as particularly valuable in developing “floor skills” and “practical experience”. The identification of those core skills essential for today’s hotel general managers and how best to develop those skills is an area worthy of considerable research in its own right. Regrettably, it is beyond the scope of this paper to consider these in depth, never-the-less; preliminary conclusions from this current study have highlighted a move towards a more business-orientated focus by hotel general managers. The significance of formal qualifications in developing associated functional managerial skills is highlighted, while the benefits of formal qualifications in developing personal transferable skills such as decision-making and leadership qualities were less evident. Several authors have, however, made particular reference to the beneficial aspects of a work placement period (incorporated within the course curriculum), in developing those personal skills required to reach a senior management level. In particular, Rimmington (1999) identifies the development of “communication, persuasiveness and self discipline” (Rimmington, 1999), and Purcell and Quinn highlight the enhancement of “practical skills and teamwork” (Purcell and Quinn, 1995, in Ladkin, 2000). Research suggests that leadership qualities in particular are considered far more of a personal “inherent attribute” and that neither formal qualifications nor “work experience” were appropriate in the development of management or supervisory skills. Clearly, there is scope for further research in this area. Career development patterns Findings revealed that there were far more managers who appeared to have adopted the more traditional route of career progression within the industry, as opposed to

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entering the management career ladder from a non hospitality background (Ruddy, 1990). This suggests that, although it was possible, very few managers do in fact move from working outside of hotels directly in to hotel general manager position. A significant proportion of the sample had held a position as “deputy”/“assistant” and/or “resident manager on route to becoming a hotel general manager, highlighting the apparent importance of this role in the career path. Similarly, the importance of a role as food and beverage/restaurant/bars and or catering manager also appeared to be significant. Positions in front office, operations or sales and marketing manager, by contrast, did not appear to be as important. The particular significance of roles within food and beverage operations not only contributes to the managerial “Traditional Vs Functional Skills” debate, but has clear implications for hospitality course curricula. As universities adopt more business management subjects at the expense of traditional skills such as food and beverage preparation and service, the debate between the educationalists and industrialists looks set to continue: There is a potential that traditional hospitality paradigms and management practices may be challenged (Morrison and O’Mahony, 2003).

The final outcome will have influence on how beneficial formal hospitality qualifications are viewed in producing graduates who meet the needs of the industry and how they will be accepted at appropriate levels of management. The sample size is regrettably too small to compare the specific career paths of qualified and unqualified managers. However, preliminary results suggest that there are no significant differences between the two and neither is there a common route to career development and positions held prior to general manager status. This highlights the unique development of an individual’s career as a result of structural opportunity and individual choice as proposed by Arthur et al. (1989). With hindsight, it would have been appropriate to collect data with regard to each respondent’s first full time position in the industry to see if there were significant variations in starting positions on the career ladder. This issue is worthy of further research when considering the significance of formal qualifications in career development patterns. The balance between career moves that were “internal” to the company against those that were “between companies” was similar (Table II). Overall, there was a slightly higher proportion: 57.3 per cent of “internal moves” compared to 42.7 per cent “external moves”. These support the traditional bureaucratic theory of career advancement, development being primarily via internal opportunities within one work 4 – current Q (%) U (%) External move Internal move Table II. Career progression: internal vs external moves

50 50

50 50

3 moves Q (%) U (%) 45.2 54.8

37.5 62.5

2 moves Q (%) U (%) 64.5 35.5

14.3 85.7

1 move Q (%) U (%) 46.7 53.3

33.3 66.7

Total 42.7 57.3

Notes: Q ¼ Qualified managers; U ¼ Unqualified managers; Table illustrates whether each of the managers’ last four career moves were within the company (internal), or between companies (external). To facilitate comparison of career paths identification has been made between those managers who held a formal qualification and those who did not

organisation (Ruddy, 1990). The high mobility and rate of progression however – with an average move every two years and eight months lends itself towards the more “modern day” theory, which challenges the concept of long term careers within one organisation in favour of a pattern of periodic job changes (Riley and Ladkin, 1994). It is interesting to note that for each career move; “unqualified managers” consistently made more “internal” than “external” moves between positions. There was not such regularity however for qualified managers, where the balance of “internal” and “external” moves was more random. This arguably supports Swanljung’s (1981) proposal that for the most successful managers it is strategically timed moves between companies that allow them to progress further and faster up the management career ladder. This is further supported by findings here that if the time spent at college/university is excluded, qualified managers took on average two years and eight months less time to reach general management position compared to their unqualified counterparts. Qualified managers achieved their first general management position at an average age of 29 years and four months. Unqualified managers were a mere one year and three months ahead even when time at college was included, they achieved general manager status at the age of 28 years and one month. The results strongly suggest that formal qualification clearly reduces the time taken to become general manager. Qualifications were also beneficial in allowing managers to move between companies in order to gain more experience and climb the management career ladder faster. Interestingly, there appears to be no significant evidence that the level of qualification gained is influential in career development, although the small sample population may have influenced these findings. With the majority of the qualified managers: 38.9 per cent holding a HND, it is not an MBA that has developed as the key to success as proposed by Swanljung (1981) and Kaplan (1982). Conclusions and recommendations Formal qualifications do appear to play an important role in the career development of contemporary hotel general managers in Scotland. Over three-quarters of the sample population (76 per cent) were qualified and the consensus was that formal qualifications were an integral aspect of a hotel manager’s career development. It is proposed that formal qualifications do facilitate career moves between companies and allow qualified managers to “fast-track” to general management positions. It appears that those who were formally qualified achieved general management status two years and eight months earlier than their unqualified counterparts. The consensus from the research was that developments within the industry were encouraging an increasingly business perspective in the role of today’s hotel general manager. Formal qualifications were perceived as a highly beneficial method of developing those functional managerial skills required, particularly in areas such as sales and marketing and strategic management. By comparison practical work experience, both within the course curriculum and the vocational role, was considered a more appropriate method of enhancing personal and traditional operational skills. Results highlighted that gaining experience particularly within food and beverage roles and at deputy/assistant general manager level were particularly beneficial. Experience within food and beverage operations does seemingly challenge the trend within universities to reduce these traditional skills within the course curriculum, in

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favour of more business-orientated subjects. However, it must be taken into account that this study was designed to examine the career development of current hotel general managers, some entered the industry 20-30 years ago. At this present time of change within the industry, the existing move towards a more business perspective in the role of hotel general manager may in fact be influencing the development of managers’ mid-career. The actual importance today of food and beverage positions may be far less than it has been during the career development of those managers within the sample. If this proves to be the case there may be a developing trend of managers entering from outside the industry, directly to general management positions. This poses implications for the seemingly “established” career path of hotel general manager through food and beverage functions and deputy/assistant managerial positions. This study only briefly considered the benefits of qualifications in developing a small random sample of skills required in today’s role of hotel general manager. The conclusions may present implications for educationalists trying to meet the needs of the industry in developing effective managers and for individuals in the development of their careers. Although it is apparent that individuals can successfully achieve general manager positions without formal qualifications, results indicate that formal qualifications are now the starting point for many managers within the hospitality industry. They facilitate career moves between companies and allow qualified managers to progress more rapidly up the career ladder. However, the perceived lack of effectiveness of formal qualifications in developing personal skills must not be ignored. As the industry demands more operationally skilled yet business orientated managers an appropriate balance must be established in the effective development of future managers for the benefit of the industry. While universities move towards more business orientated subjects the benefits of a structured work placement period within the curriculum should be reinforced. Emphasis must be placed on hospitality course curricula that develop the functional managerial skills required by today’s hotel general managers while complimented by the development of operational and personal skills through practical work experience. The overall recognition and perceived benefits of formal qualifications by both qualified and unqualified managers highlight a positive change in attitude towards the acceptance of qualifications within the hospitality industry. As recruiters and employers it is suggested that the positive attitudes of current managers will considerably benefit formally qualified future graduates, who will be increasingly accepted at higher levels of entry onto the management career ladder. As a result, provided educators place an emphasis on hospitality course curricula that develop an appropriate balance of functional managerial, operational and personal skills, formal qualifications will develop an increasingly significant role in the career development of prospective hotel general managers in Scotland. References Arnaldo, M. (1981), “Hotel general managers: a profile”, The Cornell HRA Quarterly, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 53-6. Arthur, M., Hall, D. and Lawrence, B. (1989), Handbook of Career Theory, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Baum, T. (1989), “Managing hotels in Ireland: research and development for change”, International Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 8 No. 2, pp. 131-44.

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Buchicchio, S. (1991), “Colleges are not backing industry”, Caterer and Hotelkeeper, 5 September, p. 24. Fuller, A. (1983), “Hotel management education”, in Cassee, E. and Reuland, R. (Eds), The Management of Hospitality, Pergamon, London. Gamble, P. and Messenger, S. (1990), “Preparing managers for industry: the role of hospitality management education”, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 2 No. 2, pp. 13-19. Gamble, P., Lockwood, A. and Messenger, S. (1994), “European management skills in the hospitality industry”, International Journal of Tourism Research, Vol. 1 No. 3, pp. 167-93. Goodman, R. and Spragues, L. (1991), “The future of hospitality education: meeting the industry needs”, The Cornell HRA Quarterly, August, pp. 66-70. Guerrier, Y. (1987), “Hotel managers’ careers and their impact on hotels in Britain”, International Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 6 No. 3, pp. 121-30. Guerrier, Y. and Lockwood, A. (1989), “Developing hotel managers – a reappraisal”, International Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 8 No. 2, pp. 82-9. Guerrier, Y. and Lockwood, A. (1990), “Managers in hospitality: a review of current research”, Progress in Tourism, Recreation and Hospitality Research, Vol. 2 No. 1, pp. 151-67. Kaplan, A. (1982), “A management approach to hospitality and tourism education”, International Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 11-17. Ladkin, A. (2000), “Vocational education and food and beverage experience: issues for career development”, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 12 No. 4, pp. 226-33. Ladkin, A. and Riley, M. (1996), “Mobility and structure in the career paths of UK hotel managers: a labour market hybrid of the bureaucratic model?”, Tourism Management, Vol. 17 No. 6, pp. 443-52. Morrison, A. and O’Mahoney, G.B. (2003), “The liberation of hospitality management education”, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 15 No. 1, pp. 38-44. Moser, C. and Kaltan, G. (1971), Survey Methods in Social Investigation, 2nd ed., Heinemann, London. Nebel, C., Lee, J. and Vidakovic, B. (1995), “Hotel general manager career paths in the USA”, International Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 14 No. 3/4, pp. 245-60. Riley, M.J. and Ladkin, A. (1994), “Career theory and tourism: the development of a basic analytical framework, progress in tourism”, Recreation and Hospitality Management, Vol. 6 No. 2, pp. 225-37. Rimmington, M. (1999), “Vocational education: challenges for hospitality management in the new millennium”, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 11 No. 4, pp. 186-91. Ruddy, J. (1989), “Career development of hotel managers in Hong Kong”, International Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 8 No. 3, pp. 215-25. Ruddy, J. (1990), “Patterns of hotel management developments in South East Asia”, Hospitality Research Journal, Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 349-61. Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (1997), Research Methods for Business Studies, Financial Times/Pitman Publishing, London.

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Scottish Tourist Board (2001), Scottish Tourist Board Hotels and Guest Houses, Scottish Tourist Board, Edinburgh. Swanljung, M. (1981), “How hotel executives made the climb to the top”, The Cornell HRA Quarterly, May, pp. 30-4. Thomas, R. and Harris, V. (2001), “Exploring connections between teaching and research in hospitality management”, Hospitality Management, Vol. 20 No. 3, pp. 245-57. Torrington, D. and Hall, L. (1998), Human Resource Management, 4th ed., Prentice-Hall Europe, Hemel Hempstead. Further reading Anderson, G. (1991), “The education and training of general managers in Scotland”, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 3 No. 2, pp. 26-9.