Precolumbian Ceramics (2000)

Published as: Hoopes, John W. (2000) Cerámica Precolombina. Enciclopedia italiana di scienze, lettere ed arti. Istituto della Enciclopedia italiana: Rome. Original MS. in English

Pre-Columbian Ceramics Pottery was the principal medium for cooking. storing, and serving containers in the Americas. Ceramics were also used for making a wide range of artifacts, from cooking pots to figurines and musical instruments. The enormous variation in Precolumbian ceramics is not surprising given the versatility of the medium. All the same, they retain a flavor distinct from the ceramics of other world regions. There are a number of traits that are almost universally characteristic of Precolumbian pottery. One is the fact that virtually all of it was hand-built. A “slow wheel” such as a sherd or shallow bowl turned with the hand or foot was used in some areas. However, the technique of throwing with a potter’s fast wheel was completely unknown. Most vessels were made using modeling, coil-building, and slab-building. Virtually all Precolumbian pottery was terra cotta, or earthenware. Vitrified ceramics and porcelains were not intentionally produced in the Americas until after contact with Europeans. Most vessels were fired in open pits or simple draft kilns. Firing temperatures of over 1000° were rarely achieved. Some Andean groups used naturally windy areas to achieve higher temperatures by channeling wind through vents. Pottery fired at the greatest temperatures was made by those cultures that were also smelting metals. Another trait is absence of pottery glazes. Vitrified glazes were never developed by indigenous Americans. When a shiny luster was desired, the surface of the vessel was burnished with a polished pebble prior to firing, aligning and compressing clay particles to produce a smooth and reflective surface. It is important to note that there was significant regional variation among ceramic technologies in the Americas, ranging from cultures that produced only utilitarian wares for household use to state-level societies in which craftspeople were employed full-time to produce fine pottery for use by wealthy élites. There were many cultures, especially in North America, for whom ceramic vessels were of minor importance. ORIGINS OF POTTERY IN THE AMERICAS The earliest pottery vessels in the Americas date to approximately 7000 BC. Contrary to earlier models that favored a single place of origin for ceramic technology in the America (sometimes tracing its appearance to influence from the Jomon culture of Japan), most scholars now agree that there were several loci of independent invention.1 In all cases, ceramic vessels were preceded by containers made of perishable materials, such as gourds and baskets. Ceramic technology also offered a new medium for the manufacture of figurines, which appear in the earliest complexes in Ecuador and Mexico. The invention of pottery was not always associated with early agriculture or even with sedentary village life. Instead, in many of their earliest contexts, pottery vessels were made by people with a hunting, gathering, and fishing way of life. Pottery may have 1

Hoopes 1994a 1

been invented by women, who used it to extract additional nutrients for themselves and their children from marginal foods. Pottery also allowed groups to prepare foods and beverages in increased quantities for social occasions. “Competitive feasting” may have motivated the production of high quality serving vessels that reproduced forms and designs found earlier on gourds.2 The earliest ceramics come from Brazil and Colombia, in tropical South America. Dates of 7000 BC have been associated with pottery at Taperinha, near Santarem (Brazil) on the lower Amazon.3 Vessels were sand-tempered, with rare incised decorations. Shapes were limited to hemispherical and inturned-rim bowls with rounded, thickened bases. Sooted sherds suggest that they were used for cooking in the context of seasonal occupations by hunter-gatherers engaged in fishing and shellfish collection. Fiber tempered are somewhat later than the sand-tempered wares—a situation reversed in northern Colombia. The earliest pottery in northern Colombia is a fiber-tempered ware from sites like San Jacinto 1, where it is associated with dates of ca. 4000 BC.4 The site at which it was found was a seasonally occupied point bar used by a hunting, gathering, and fishing people who exploited a wide range of microenvironments ranging from estuaries to grasslands and transitional forests. The pottery was made by direct shaping and fired in a reducing atmosphere. Forms include incurving-rim bowls, spouted jars, and neckless globular jars decorated with deep incision. There is no clear relationship between firecracked rocks and pottery at the site, suggesting that the vessels were not used for cooking. The Valdivia pottery of coastal Ecuador was among the first to be recognized as an initial ceramic complex. Although its original excavators suggested that it had been introduced to South America by Japanese fishermen of the Jomon culture, this hypothesis has been discounted.5 Valdivia pottery dates to ca. 3500-1500 BC.6 It appeared in the context of people who were primarily hunters and gatherers, but who may have had an early form of maize agriculture. Valdivia people also cultivated beans, root crops, gourds, and cotton. The earliest vessels are sophisticated in form, and include necked jars and hemispherical bowls, the latter often covered with a thick, maroon slip. Figurines are present from the earliest part of the complex, beginning as solid, tabular forms with groove-incised faces. Ceramic technology may have been introduced to the Ecuadorian coast from areas east of the Andes, but direct connections between early Brazilian or Colombian complexes have yet to be demonstrated.7 In southern Central America, the earliest ceramics are the complexes of Monagrillo, in Panama, at 2500 BC and Tronadora, in Costa Rica, at 2000 BC.8 In Mesoamerica, pottery was used in villages of the Barra phase on the Pacific coasts of Chiapas and Guatemala at around 1800 BC.9 Local “self-aggrandizers” used decorated 2

Hayden 1995 Roosevelt 1995; Roosevelt, et al. 1991 4 Oyuela-Caycedo 1995 5 McEwan and Dickson 1978; Meggers, et al. 1965 6 Damp and Vargas 1995 7 Raymond, et al. 1994 8 Cooke 1995; Hoopes 1994b 9 Clark and Gosser 1995 3

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neckless jars (tecomates) to serve food and beverages as a means of competing for labor and social status.10 Unlike other initial ceramic complexes, Barra pottery is sophisticated in both technology and design. This suggests that the technology, once understood, was rapidly adopted and refined. All Barra vessels have fine slips and are burnished to a high luster. Decoration was made with deep, multiple, parallel-line incisions, zoned incising and punctation, grooving, fluting, and gadrooning. Some vessels have segmented, squash-like forms. The rapid adoption of fine, highly decorated vessels suggests that they may have replaced decorated gourds in status-related consumption and display. Vessel forms for cooking and storage comes later in time. Pottery first appears at radically different times in different parts of North America. In southern and central Mexico, the Espriridion complex of the Oaxaca Valley and the Purrón complex of the Tehuacán Valley appears to be roughly contemporaneous with Barra.11 The earliest vessels in each region derive their forms from gourds, which had been used for thousands of years before the appearance of pottery. Many Espiridion vessels may have been made by press-molding clay inside or outside of a gourd. In Georgia and Florida, the introduction of pottery dates to about 2500 BC. Sites like Stallings Island have a fiber-tempered ware decorated with punctation and drag-and-jab designs. This was used in the context of hunting and gathering societies for extracting oils and fats from nuts and meats via “moist indirect cooking”.12 Instead of placing pots on a fire, hot objects of carved soapstone were placed in vessels to boil water. The earliest pottery of the Southwestern U.S. does not appear until about AD 200, when it was first manufactured by Hohokam agriculturists in southern Arizona.13 The first Southwestern pots were used to extract additional nutrients from meat and plants to improve the diets primarily of women and children. Over time, this pottery developed into one of the most refined ceramic industries in the America. Black-on-white vessels appear first in the Pueblo I period of the Anasazi culture in the Four Corners region (where the states of Colorado, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico meet) around AD 200. CHARACTERISTICS OF TECHNOLOGY Ancient American potters made use of a variety of raw materials. Natural deposits of potting clay were highly valued, and often became the location of communities that specialized in ceramic manufacture. Special clay sources were used for making Plumbate vessels with a characteristic metallic finish in Pacific Guatemala. Potters of the eastern Pueblos often favored micaceous clays. Clays were mixed with tempering agents to change qualities of forming, firing, and final usage. The most common temper was sand. Other tempers included plant fibers, volcanic tephra, and powdered shell, each of which is often characteristic of a certain culture or time period. A wide variety of colored slips were used from the Southwestern U.S. to the Amazon and southern Andes, the most common colors being red, cream, and black. Most vessels were coil built. Walls were thinned by scraping or the paddle-andanvil technique. Mass production of artifacts in specialized workshops was characteristics of more complex societies. The people of Teotihuacan, in Mexico, used molds to mass10

Hayden 1995 Clark and Gosser 1995; Flannery and Marcus 1994 12 Sassaman 1993; Sassaman 1995 13 Crown and Wills 1995 11

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produce votive figurines. The Moche of the north coast of Peru used molds and slipcasting to mass-produce many different styles of vessels. Form Precolumbian ceramics take many different forms. The shape of the neckless jar, or tecomate, one of the earliest vessel forms in the Americas, is derived from a gourd, whose function it assumed. The tecomate was principally used for storage and serving. Typical tecomates have an almost spherical shape. Sizes range from miniature vessels to examples over a meter in diameter. It was succeeded by necked jars of wide range of styles and sizes. Other vessel forms included flat plates for cooking, such the budares of northern South America for toasting manioc cakes, and Mexican comales, for making maize tortillas. Some of the earliest ceramic artifacts in the Americas are Valdivia figurines in the form of naked females with massive hairdos, painted with dark red slips except for the hair and pubic regions. Bicephalic examples suggest they represent supernatural beings. Figurines from Tlatilco in central Mexico date to the Early and Middle Formative periods (1800-1000 BC) have stylized coffee-bean eyes and heavily distorted bodies. These figures were modeled by hand and embellished with pieces of applied clay. The majority represented females with exaggerated hips and heads. Many hold babies. Small, solid, anthropomorphic figurines were made by the thousands at Teotihuacan during the Classic period (AD 100-700). These included modeled bodies with mold-made heads as well as fully mold-made examples. The broadly smiling Remojadas figurines of Veracrúz, Mexico are another example of human effigies in ceramics. These had mold-made heads and modeled bodies, often decorated with strip appliqué. The most realistic solid figurines are those manufactured by the Maya of Jaina Island, off the western coast of the Yucatan Peninsula, during the Late Classic period (AD 600-900).14 These beautiful miniature sculptures depict many aspects of Maya life, including representations of nobility in fine clothes, ballplayers in full regalia, women weaving with backstrap looms, dancers in elaborate masks, and warriors prepared for battle. They were painted in brilliant colors, including the spectacular “Maya blue” pigment. Hollow human figures are found in pottery in a number of cultures throughout the Americas. The Olmecs of Central Mexico (1200-400 BC) produced fat, seated babies of white clay. The Chorrera culture of coastal Ecuador, often identified as the first “horizon style” of this region, made standing figures with large headdresses, painted in black and red. These were succeeded by solid figures of the Guangala and Manabí cultures. Highly stylized human figures representing nobility or shamans are known from the Caldas complex of the Middle Cauca Valley of Colombia. They are often seated and wearing restrictive bands on their arms and legs. Both men and women (some with infants) are depicted. The Late Preclassic (300 BC – AD 300) cultures of Nayarit, Jalisco, and Colima in west Mexico produced abundant human figures for inclusion in shaft-andchamber tombs. The figures include men, women, and children in poses from warfare, ritual, and daily life. There are also dioramas of village activities, including models of houses, religious ceremonies, and ballgames.15 Some of the most expressive animal forms are the pot-bellied dogs of Colima, Mexico. At Teotihuacan, solid human effigies with 14 15

Schele 1997 Townsend, et al. 1998 4

covered, hollow spaces in their bellies hiding mold-made solid figurines were used in shrines, caches, and burials. At the same site, a type called Thin Orange ware often takes the form of effigies of animals such as coyotes. In Costa Rica, one finds ceramic effigy heads that may represent ancestors or the decapitated heads of enemies. Effigy head vessels are also found in the Mississipian culture of the eastern U.S., where their closed eyes and sealed mouths suggest trophy heads taken in warfare. Ceramic Objects Pottery served a variety of important functions beyond those of cooking, serving, and storage. Pottery vessels were also used for burials in a number of places. Some of the most elaborate burial urns are known from the Middle Magdalena Valley of Colombia, where they were made in anthropomorphic forms or decorated with detailed human figures. Ceramics were also used for stamps, spindle whorls, toys, and musical instruments. Stamps and seals were used for decorating textiles, the human body, and pottery vessels. Thousands were produced at Teotihuacan, many perforated for suspension. A common design in Costa Rica is the cylindrical roller seal with geometric decorations. Spindle whorls were made in a variety of sizes and weights, depending upon the type of thread that was desired, and decorated with incision or painting. Some were made from worked sherds with central perforations. Ceramic rattles, whistles, flutes and ocarinas that could play multiple tones were also common. Ceramic toys in the form of small dogs with wheels (the only examples of wheeled vehicles in the Americas) are known from Veracrúz, Mexico. Ceramics were used in parts of South America to make crucibles and furnaces for metallurgy. Narrow, funnel-shaped tuyeres, or blow tubes, were used in metal workshops in the valleys of the north coast of Peru. Fastened to the end of hollow canes, they were inserted into a fire or furnace as air was blown through the tube to achieve a high temperature. Surface Finish In addition to monochrome, bichrome, and polychrome painting, there were many distinctive decorative techniques and surface treatments. Some early Mesoamerican pottery was decorated with rocker-stamping, a technique in which the edge of a shell is “walked” across the surface to create a zig-zag pattern. Cord-marked pottery, produced by impressing the external surface with a cordage-wrapped paddle, is typical of Middle Woodland assemblages of the eastern U.S. Olmec artisans of the Gulf Coast of Mexico produced elegant carved designs of stylized bird wings and jaguar paws that represented esoteric knowledge. The Maya were also experts at modeling and carving, producing realistic forms of birds, animals, and humans. Resist decoration was achieved by applying designs to a pot with a substance that created areas of negative color when covered with a colored slip. Vessels with resist decoration are found in coastal Ecuador, central Mexico, coastal Guatemala, and the Nariño region of Colombia. Usulután pottery, a style characterized by resist decoration, appeared throughout the Maya area. Pottery was also decorated after firing. At Teotihuacan, fine vessels were often finished with a thin layer of white plaster that was painted with multicolored designs similar to those in murals at the site. USES OF NEW WORLD POTTERY One of the principal functions of pottery in Central and South America was for brewing chicha, a fermented beverage made from fruits or maize that was consumed on 5

ceremonial occasions. At Inka sites like Huánuco Pampa, massive quantities of large, broken vessels suggest that an enormous amount of chicha was produced at this highland center, probably by acllas, or “Virgins of the Sun”, who specialized in brewing and textile production. The arybalos, a vessel characteristic of the Inkas, was the South American version of the amphora. It was used primarily for transporting chicha used at public ceremonies and served to the Inka military. The conical base and tall neck and were designed to prevent its contents from spilling. A tumpline attached to its two sturdy handles allowed for the vessels—which were quite heavy when filled—to be carried by porters. The kero is a distinctive, beaker-shaped drinking cup used extensively by the Wari and Tiwanaku cultures of highland Peru and Bolivia (AD 700-1200). It became emblematic of the reciprocal exchange of food and drink for labor. The form was adopted by the Inca and mass-produced in ceramic workshops throughout the empire. Vessels with supports are common in Mesoamerica and southern Central America. From the Maya area south to Panama, these include hollow supports with clay pellets inside that rattle when the vessel is shaken. They may have been used to give aural cues when the vessels were empty. Rattle-footed bowls may have doubled as percussion instruments in dances and ceremonies. However, the form was often retained even on vessels that would have been too large or inappropriate for rattling. Finely crafted pottery was a desired object of trade. Usulután-style pottery, produced in El Salvador, was traded widely through Central America. Fine Orange pottery manufactured in Veracrúz was traded throughout the Maya area. Vessels of Plumbate pottery from Pacific Guatemala have been found from central Mexico to Costa Rica during the Early Postclassic period (AD 1000-1300). ART STYLES The following are some examples of pottery styles characteristic of specific cultures or regions that illustrate the diversity of the potter’s art in the Americas. It is important to note that the vast majority of complete vessels have been recovered from burials. North America The Hopewell culture (AD 200-700) of the eastern U.S. produced unslipped vessels with decorations executed using plastic techniques of surface modification. The typical Hopewell jar is beaker-shaped, with no supports or handles. Decorations range from simple shell- and fingernail- impressions to incised zones and elaborate curvilinear motifs. Later Mississippian (AD 1000-1500) potters at densely populated, semi-urban centers like Cahokia, Illinois produced finely crafted shell-tempered jars with characteristic incised designs, among them a “sunburst” pattern. In southwestern New Mexico, the stunning Classic Mimbres pottery of the Puebloan Mogollon culture is known almost exclusively from looted contexts because very few sites have not been destroyed. The Mimbres style dates to about AD 100-1150. Hemispherical bowls were painted on their interiors with vibrant black-on-white designs. These included expressive representations of animals, humans, and geometric designs. Vessels were typically placed as offerings in graves dug beneath house floors. Another typical ceramic type of the Southwestern U.S. was the corrugated cooking jar. The exteriors of these jars had surfaces textured with overlapping, unsmoothed coils.

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Mesoamerica and Central America Cylindrical vessels with three solid supports made of flat slabs of clay are characteristic of classic Teotihuacan culture. Most of these vessels had lids with knob handles. They were often filled with food offerings and placed in tombs. Decorated cylindrical cups with flat bases, used by nobility for ceremonial consumption of cacao beverages, were among the most valued pottery vessels of the ancient Maya.16 Many were painted by the same scribes responsible for screenfold books (codices) that recorded information about myths and legends, astronomical observations, genealogies, and histories. Tall examples with elegant black calligraphy are known as “Codex Style” vessels. Other examples are more elaborately colored, with designs in orange, red, brown, and Maya blue. Hieroglyphic inscriptions on them record information about who owned the cup, the occasion on which the it was presented by one nobleman to another, where it was made, and the identity of the artist who painted it.. They were ultimately placed as offerings in royal tombs. Special vessels for burning incense such as pom, or copal resin, are found throughout Mesoamerica. One typical shape is an unslipped, hourglass form decorated with conical nubbins. At Teotihuacan, large incensarios were decorated with mold-made shapes representing flowers, rainclouds, and seashells. Two beautiful examples from Palenque represent principal deities associated with the creation of the Universe. During the height of Monte Albán civilization in Oaxaca, spectacular incensarios were produced in the shape of deities or individuals in the costumes of deities. A common subject was Cocijo, a deity associated with wind, thunder, lightning, and rain. These vessels are typically in the form of a seated human figure with an elaborate headdress made of modeled or mold-made ceramic parts. The largest examples are almost life sized. The polychrome pottery of the Coclé culture (AD 500-800) in central Panama is particularly spectacular. Typical forms are flat, circular plates on tall pedestal bases. They are painted with intricate designs, executed in black outlines with a fine-tipped brush and infilled with rich colors such as reds, oranges, and purples. The motifs include anthropomorphic reptilian deities and other mythical animals, including iguanas, snakes, fish, and crabs. This pottery was made for the highest ranking nobility. At Sitio Conte, hundreds of vessels were found in association with the burials of nobility and their attendants, accompanied by spectacular objects of hammered gold sheets, emeralds, and exotic carvings made from the teeth of sperm whales sheathed in gold. The pottery of Postclassic Cholula (AD 13050-1519) was used in the court of the Aztec emperor Montezuma. It was painted with beautiful polychrome designs, often with motifs of human skeletons and themes related to human sacrifice. At the same time, the distinctive pottery called “Biscuit Ware” was being produced in western Panama. It is unslipped and unpainted, with finely smoothed, extremely thin walls. The high quality of its firing may have been achieved with a technology similar to that used for casting objects of tumbaga (a gold-copper alloy). South America The distinctive stirrup-spout tradition of the north coast of Peru has its origins in the Cupisnique culture (1800-1200 BC), which replicated Chavín-style designs. Cupisnique pots were slipped in a single color, usually black, brown, or red, and 16

Reents-Budet 1994 7

decorated with plastic techniques including modeling, impressions, and incision. Some vessel surfaces replicate unusual textures, such as those of the sacred spiny oyster (Spondylus sp.), fruits and gourds, or various kinds of textiles. Others were modeled in the form of houses, people, or animals. The stirrup-spout vessel reached its highest form in the context of Moche civilization (AD 200-900), distributed on the north coast of Peru between Piura and the Huarmey Valley. The approximate age of a vessel can be determined by the diameter and style of the spout. Wide spouts with thickened rims are earliest, while narrow spouts with tapered rims are the most recent. Moche pottery was typically decorated with red-orange pigment on a cream-colored slip. The function of the stirrup spout is unknown, but it is likely that it served as a handle. These were drinking vessels as well as luxury objects for ceremonial presentations. The Moche created fantastic pottery sculptures representing religious personnel, vegetables, animals, and scenes from daily life including medical anomalies, diseases, and wounds. Stirrup-spout portrait vessels are the most realistic depictions of individuals known in the ancient Americas, and sexual acts depicted in great detail on these vessels are among the most explicit in ancient art.. Late Moche stirrup-spout vessels were painted with intricate scenes of battles, royal burials, seal hunting expeditions filled with a mixture of historical and supernatural characters. These include several recognizable themes, including The Sacrifice Ceremony, the Revolt of the Objects, the Boat, and the Burial, analogous to Biblical scenes in Medieval and Renaissance art. Bridge-and-spout vessels are another distinctive Andean style, characterized by two vertical spouts connected by a flat handle. The earliest examples of this vessel form are associated with the Paracas culture of the south coast of Peru (200 BC – AD 700). They were also manufactured by the Nazca, of the same region, who decorated them with colorful, polychrome designs. The most elaborate vessels of this style were made by artisans of the Sicán culture of the Lambayeque-Leche-Jequetepeque Valley system (AD 900-1400), who decorated them with representations of royalty or religious personnel. In the Chimú culture of the north coast of Peru (AD 1200-1470), these were typically finished with a black slip and decorated with incisions and appliqué. Some bridge-andspout vessels are called “whistling jars” because a tone is produced when air rushes in through one spout as the other is used for pouring liquid. The Nazca also produced spectacular polychrome vessels with bright, cartoon-like designs representing people, animals, deities, and cosmological symbols. Vessels were highly burnished, and included both simple bowls and elaborate zoomorphic jars. The fine polychrome tradition of Nazca was continued in the more highly geometric styles of coastal Middle Horizon (AD 700-1200) culture. Another distinctive style is the pottery of Marajó Island, near the mouth of the Amazon River in Brazil. Classic Marajoara pottery (AD ____) is decorated with elegant polychrome designs executed on clear, white slips. ARCHAEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS There are several systems of ceramic classification used by American archaeologists. These correspond to intellectual traditions of different regions and to the construction of research methodologies. One of the oldest systems in use is known as the type-variety system. It is based upon a descending hierarchy of taxonomic categories— ware, group, type, variety—that are defined respectively on the basis of paste composition, surface finish, decoration, and specific motifs or forms. The type-variety 8

system is widely used in the Southwestern and eastern U.S., Mesoamerica, and Central America. Its use in South America is less common. The type-variety system was developed primarily for the purpose of interregional comparisons and the construction of culture histories for specific regions. It has been criticized for its limitations in addressing questions of vessel function or the interpretation of characteristics that cross-cut hierarchical categories. Another system is that based on an analysis of modes of paste, form, surface finish, decoration, and motifs independent of taxonomic categories. Most analysts today rely upon some form of the latter approach. Many techniques have been employed for the analysis of pottery. Optical petrography has been a useful tool since the early decades of the 20th century.17 It has been applied to ceramics of the Southwestern and Plains regions of the U.S. to suggest patterns of interethnic marriage. Women who had learned to make vessels in their home regions reproduced these styles in other geographic locations, resulting in pottery of a single style but with a variety of different pastes. A number of chemical techniques have been utilized in the analysis of ancient American ceramics.18 Instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) is one that has proven extremely useful for the sourcing of ceramic objects through trace element analysis. One example of this is the use of INAA for identifying characteristics pastes of finely painted Maya vases. Because the majority of these vessels come from unprovenienced contexts, trace element analysis plays a critical role in identifying possible regions of manufacture.19 Another example is the correlation of certain styles of polychrome pottery from northwestern Costa Rica and southwestern Nicaragua with chemical “fingerprints” and petrographic characterizations that help to identify which vessels may have been produced in the same villages in spite of widespread intervillage ceramic exchange.20 Recent analysis has also identified Usulután-style ceramics that were made in Mesoamerica and exported to southern Central America.

Bishop, Ronald L., Frederick W. Lange, and Peter C. Lange 1988 Ceramic Paste Compositional Patterns in Greater Nicoya Pottery. In Costa Rican Art and Archaeology: Essays in Honor of Frederick R. Mayer. F.W. Lange, ed. Pp. 11-44. Boulder, Colorado: Johnson Publishing. Clark, John E., and Dennis Gosser 1995 Reinventing Mesoamerica's first pottery. In The emergence of pottery : technology and innovation in ancient societies. W. Barnett and J.W. Hoopes, eds. Pp. 209-222. Smithsonian series in archaeological inquiry. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. Cooke, Richard 1995 Monagrillo, Panama's first pottery: summary of research, with new interpretations. In The emergence of pottery : technology and innovation in 17

Rice 1987 Neff 1992 19 Reents-Budet, et al. 1994 20 Bishop, et al. 1988 18

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ancient societies. W. Barnett and J.W. Hoopes, eds. Pp. 169-184. Smithsonian series in archaeological inquiry. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. Crown, Patricia L., and Wirt H. Wills 1995 Economic intensification and the origins of ceramic containers in the American Southwest. In The emergence of pottery : technology and innovation in ancient societies. W. Barnett and J.W. Hoopes, eds. Pp. 241-256. Smithsonian series in archaeological inquiry. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. Damp, Jonathan E., and L. Patricia Vargas 1995 The many contexts of early Valdivia ceramics. In The emergence of pottery : technology and innovation in ancient societies. W. Barnett and J.W. Hoopes, eds. Pp. 157-168. Smithsonian series in archaeological inquiry. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. Flannery, Kent V., and Joyce Marcus 1994 Early formative pottery of the Valley of Oaxaca. Ann Arbor, MI: Museum of Anthropology University of Michigan. Hayden, Brian 1995 The emergence of prestige technologies and pottery. In The emergence of pottery : technology and innovation in ancient societies. W. Barnett and J.W. Hoopes, eds. Pp. 257-266. Smithsonian series in archaeological inquiry. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. Hoopes, John W. 1994a Ford Revisited: A Critical Review of the Chronology and Relationships of the Earliest Ceramic Complexes in the New World, 6000-1500 B.C. Journal of World Prehistory 8(1):1-50. Hoopes, John W. 1994b The Tronadora Complex: Early Formative Ceramics in Northwestern Costa Rica. Latin American Antiquity 5(1):3-30. McEwan, G. F., and D. B. Dickson 1978 Valdivia, Jomon Fishermen, and the Nature of the North Pacific: Some Nautical Problems with Meggers, Evans, and Estrada's (1965) Transoceanic Contact Hypothesis. American Antiquity 43(4):362-371. Meggers, B. J., C. Evans, and E. Estrada 1965 Early Formative Period of Coastal Ecuador: The Valdivia and Machalilla Phases. Volume 1. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. Neff, Hector 1992 Chemical characterization of ceramic pastes in archaeology. Madison, Wis.: Prehistory Press. Oyuela-Caycedo, Augusto 1995 Rocks versus clay: the evolution of pottery technology in the case of San Jacinto 1, Colombia. In The emergence of pottery : technology and innovation in ancient societies. W. Barnett and J.W. Hoopes, eds. Pp. 133-144. Smithsonian series in archaeological inquiry. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. Raymond, J. Scott, Augusto Oyuela-Caycedo, and Patrick Carmichael 1994 Una comparación de las tecnologías de la cerámica temprana de Ecuador y Colombia. In Tecnología y Organización de la Producción Cerámica Prehispánica

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en los Andes. I. Shimada, ed. Pp. 33-52. Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Fondo Editorial. Reents-Budet, Dorie 1994 Painting the Maya Universe: Royal Ceramics of the Classic Period. Durham: Duke University Press. Reents-Budet, Dorie, Ronald L. Bishop, and Barbara MacLeod 1994 Painting Styles, Workshop Locations and Pottery Production. In Painting the Maya Universe: Royal Ceramics of the Classic Period. D. Reents-Budet, ed. Pp. 164-233. Durham: Duke University Press. Rice, Prudence M. 1987 Pottery analysis : a sourcebook. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Roosevelt, Anna C. 1995 Early pottery in the Amazon: twenty years of scholarly obscurity. In The emergence of pottery : technology and innovation in ancient societies. W. Barnett and J.W. Hoopes, eds. Pp. 115-132. Smithsonian series in archaeological inquiry. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. Roosevelt, A. C., et al. 1991 Eighth Millennium Pottery from a Prehistoric Shell Midden in the Brazilian Amazon. Science 254:1621-1624. Sassaman, Kenneth E. 1993 Early pottery in the Southeast : tradition and innovation in cooking technology. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. Sassaman, Kenneth E. 1995 The social contradictions of traditional and innovative cooking technologies in the prehistoric American Southeast. In The emergence of pottery : technology and innovation in ancient societies. W. Barnett and J.W. Hoopes, eds. Pp. 223-240. Smithsonian series in archaeological inquiry. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. Schele, Linda 1997 Hidden Faces of the Maya. New York: Alti Publishing. Townsend, Richard F., et al. 1998 Ancient West Mexico : art and archaeology of the unknown past. New York Chicago: Thames and Hudson ; Art Institute of Chicago.

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