Prajnaparamita - A brief introduction

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Prajnaparamita प्रज्ञापारमिता
(A short notes on Prajnaparamita)

If there is any religion that would cope with modern scientific needs it would be Buddhism.
Albert Einstein


Dharmadhatu Mahavihar
Bikramshila Mahabihar, Simhakalpanagar
(Bhagwan Bahal, Thamel)
Garud Bhagwan
(Simhasarthabahu)

Compiled by
Damodar Pradhan
Monumental Guide

Buddha Era 2552, Nepal Era 1132,
Bikram Era 2068; 2012 A.D













Prajnaparamita प्रज्ञापारमिता
(A short notes on Prajnaparamita)

If there is any religion that would cope with modern scientific needs it would be Buddhism.
Albert Einstein

Vahalassa Jataka
Avalokiteswora
(Flying White Horse)
The Globin City

Dharmadhatu Mahavihar
Bikramshila Mahabihar, Simhakalpanagar
(Bhagwan Bahal, Thamel)
Garud Bhagwan
(Simhasarthabahu)

Compiled by
Damodar Pradhan
Monumental Guide

Buddha Era 2552, Nepal Era 1132,
Bikram Era 2068; 2012 A.D


The Sanskrit word Prajnaparamita literally translated signifies this book as "the Perfection of Transcendent Wisdom" (Perfect wisdom beyond ordinary limits / Pranjna - प्रज्ञा wisdom and paramita पारमिता perfect or perfection) Prajnapramita is the central concept in Mahayana Buddhism and its practice is believed to be the essential elements of the Bodhisattva Path. The practice of Prajna-paramita is described in the Prajnaparamita Sutras, which vary widely in length and written by different scholars. Prajnaparamita and Tara are both referred as mother of all Buddha, since Buddha is born from wisdom.
The Dharma is classified as inferior and superior according to the disciple's grade. In Buddhism the disciples are being classified into four different stage of human being for example ordinary men; the stage of sainthood; Saint and bodhisattvas. In Buddhism, Dharma is referred to the teaching of Buddha, the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Noble Path, the three Marks of Existence, and other guidelines. The main motif is to achieve the freedom and liberation from suffering and understand the state of mind to realize the supreme happiness, the natural joy and nirvana. The happiness is classified as Ananda (Joy), Paramanda (Supreme Joy), Virmananda (Absence of Joy), and Sahajanand (Natural Joy).
The Four Noble Truths: (Sanskrit: चत्वारि आर्यसत्यानि catvari aryasatyani) are an important principle in Buddhism, classically taught by the Buddha in the Dharmacakra Pravartana Sutra.
Four Noble Truths is referred to the state of mind Dukkha (Suffering), Samudaya (the cause of suffering), Nirodha (free from suffering), Marga (a way to end suffering). The Four Noble Truths are formulated according to the ancient medical model as follows: -
1) There is an illness
2) The diagnosis – there is a cause of illness
3) There is a possibility of a cure for the illness
4) There is treatment for the illness (The prescription that can relieves the illness)
The basic teachings of the Four Noble Truths are:
The First Noble Truth: Dukkha
Dukkha usually is translated as suffering. In life, we have illness, poverty, disease, old age and death. We cannot keep what we like and avoid what we do not like. It is universal truth that the happiness we do enjoy is temporary and we do need to suffer.
2) The Second Noble Truth: Samudaya
The main cause of suffering is desire & illusions which is mainly because of ignorance. Wanting life, death, pleasure and things all lead to suffering
3) The Third Noble Truth: Nirodha
Suffering can get stopped if we can get rid of the state of mind, desire, cravings or hunger. There is a state of mind free from suffering if we can develop insight into the true nature of phenomena (or reality) and to eradicate greed, feeling of intense dislike, and delusion (a false belief or opinion).
4) The Fourth Noble Truth: Marga
There is a way to end suffering, we must end our cravings. The Noble Eightfold Path is the only noble way that leads to end the suffering (dukkha or carving) and achieve self-awakening. It is also known as the Middle Path or Middle Way.
The Eightfold Path
Noble Eightfold Path can only work if a person chooses to apply it to their lives, and takes full responsibility in following the steps. The Noble Eightfold Path is a very systematic and methodical approach to solve the problem of suffering in life, and achieving a state of wisdom, peace and Nirvana. The programmer first develops character and personality, and then develops ethical conduct and restraint which promote concentration. Concentration and mindfulness help make the mind free from ignorance and blossom into wisdom (access higher knowledge). Wisdom brings a clear understanding of the truth about how things really are. This leads craving and desire to end from the mind (detachment) that brings freedom from suffering and the end of suffering brings Supreme Happiness. The Noble Eightfold Path describes the teachings as a formula which is described in simple steps and includes both physical and mental treatment for getting an end of suffering. The goal of the Noble Eightfold Path is to bring a true understanding of the Four Noble Truths and deliver their ultimate Teaching - the end of suffering. The Path develops character and personality by showing the way to live a virtuous life, develop wisdom and finally to attain the highest qualities of a human being and develop the Buddhahood. This is the ultimate goal of the Eightfold Path and all eight ways of practice must be followed in order to attain it. The Path is specifically aimed at developing behavior, mind and knowledge and the eight steps are divided into those three ways of practice that is Good Conduct, Mental Development and Wisdom.
It is the Noble Eightfold Path that helps to realize happiness by understanding the Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right Concentration, Right Attitude and Right View.
Truth is found through the Middle Way by following Eightfold Noble Path as stated below:
1) Right Viewpoint or right vision Understanding or (samyag-dristi/ amma dristi)
Correct thought by avoiding sharp desire - extreme desire to acquire, the wish to harm others and wrong views (thinking as if the actions have no effect or say I have no problem so there is no ways to end suffering etc.) Right view begins with the concept of knowledge with reference to suffering, its origin, the main cause and the solution to get rid of suffering. Birth, aging, sickness, death, sorrow, pain, grief, distress, and something that causes extreme sadness are suffering. Not being able to obtain what one wants is also suffering.
"Wrong view" arising from ignorance, is the precondition for wrong intention, wrong speech, wrong action, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong awareness of one's own existence (mindfulness) and wrong concentration. The practitioner should use right effort to leave completely and finally the wrong view and to enter into right view. Right mindfulness is used to clear one's path of the majority of confusion, misunderstanding and unreasonable thinking. In this way, right view becomes a route to liberation rather than an obstacle.
Suffering: Birth, aging, sickness, death, sorrow, lamentation, distress, pain, grief, and despair are suffering. Not being able to obtain what one wants is also suffering. The way leading to the cessation of suffering is the noble eightfold path.
2) Right Attitude/Right intention/ right liberation/Right intention. (Samyak - samkalpa, samma-samkalpa)
Commitment to mental value or expressing moral approval or moral philosophy Correct speech: avoid lying, harass speech (while having difference of opinion do not use harass speech) and idle talk or rumor.
Right intention can also be known as right thought, right resolve, right conception, right aspiration or the exertion of our own will to change. Correct understanding of right view will help the practitioner to discern the differences between right intention and wrong intention. Ethical conduct is used primarily to facilitate mental purification.
Commitment to mental value or expressing moral approval or moral philosophy. Correct speech: avoid lying, harass speech (while having difference of opinion do not use harass speech) and idle talk or rumor.
Right intention can also be known as right thought, right resolve, right conception, right aspiration or the physical and mental effort to change our own will. Correct understanding of right view will help the practitioner to understand the differences between right intention and wrong intention. Ethical conduct is used primarily to facilitate mental purification.
3) Right speech (samyag-vac, samma-vaca)
The power of speech is a unique gift of man. It is a power of speech that helps to bring harmony, happiness and wisdom. Speak in a truthful way without harming others; and to grow worse with unreasonable or wrong logic. If it is abused it can bring ignorance, delusion, pain and deceit. Right Speech is about controlling the abuse of speech and to control the words (while having difference of opinion do not use harass speech). It teaches to avoid lies, tale bearing, harsh words and idle talk or rumor and practice speaking truth, gentle words and sensibly and meaningful speech.
Right speech deals with the way in which a Buddhist practitioner would best make use of their words, and to get rid of divisive or abusive speech.
4. Right action (samyak-karmanta, samma-kammanta)
Right action can also be translated as "right conduct". As such, the practitioner should train oneself to be morally upright in one's activities, not acting in ways that would be corrupt or bring harm to oneself or to others.
Simple and healthy action, avoid action that would harm others, avoid killing, stealing and sexual misconduct. Right Action is concerned with what we do; avoiding actions that damage ourselves and others. Simple and healthy action, avoid action that would harm others.
To understand the Law of Cause and Effect (Not to destroy any life, not to steal or commit adultery) Simple and healthy action, avoid action that would harm others, avoid killing, stealing and sexual misconduct. Right Action is concerned with what we do; avoiding actions that damage ourselves and others. Simple and healthy action, avoid action that would harm others. Correct livelihood: try to make a living with the above attitude of thought, speech and actions.
5) Right Livelihood: (samyag-ajiva, samma-ajiva)
Right Livelihood shows the way for a person to choose the best way to become a useful, productive citizen and bring social and economic progress. Buddhist Teachings advise against harmful professions such as trading in weapons, living beings, flesh, intoxicants and poison. Understanding and developing profession does not harm in any way oneself nor others. Try to make a living with the above attitude of thought, speech and actions to understand and develop genuine wisdom. Avoid occupations that bring harm to oneself and others. Understanding and developing profession and genuine wisdom, does not harm in any way oneself nor others, directly or indirectly (to understand and develop genuine wisdom). Avoid occupations of soldiering, fishing, hunting, and teach against cunning, cheating and gambling. Understanding and developing profession does not harm in any way oneself nor others. Try to make a living with the above attitude of thought, speech and actions to understand and develop genuine wisdom. Avoid occupations that bring harm to oneself and others.
This means that practitioners ought not to engage in trades or occupations which, either directly or indirectly, result in harm for other living beings.
Samadhi: mental discipline, concentration, meditation.
Samadhi is literally translated as "concentration", it is achieved through training in the higher consciousness, which brings the calm and collectedness needed to develop true wisdom by direct experience.
(The following last three aspects refer mainly to the practice of meditation)
6) Right Effort: (samyag-vyayama, samma –vayama)
Right effort can also be translated as "right endeavor or try to do seriously or continually
In this factor, the practitioners should make a persisting effort to abandon all the wrong and harmful thoughts, words, and deeds. The practitioner should instead be persisting in giving rise to what would be good and useful to themselves and others in their thoughts, words, and deeds, without a thought for the difficulty or causing you to feel tired. Right Effort is earnestly doing one's best in the right direction which is fourfold:
1. Avoid evil and unwholesome states of mind from arising
2. Overcome evil and unwholesome states of mind already present
3. Cause good and wholesome states of mind not yet present to arise
4. Develop and perfect such states of mind already present
Try again and again to make an effort to improve the belief (to continue a joyful belief even though it is difficult - Perseverance)
7. Right mindfulness (samyak-smṛti, samma-sati)
The mind is deliberately kept at the level of bare attention, a detached observation of what is happening within us and around us in the present moment. In the practice of right mindfulness the mind is trained to remain in the present, open, quiet, and alert, to look carefully at the present event. All judgments and interpretations have to be suspended, or if they occur, just registered and dropped.
Right mindfulness also translated as right memory, right awareness or right attention. Here, practitioners should constantly keep their minds alert to phenomena that affect the body and mind. They should be mindful and deliberate, making sure not to act or speak due to inattention or forgetfulness. The mind is deliberately kept at the level of bare attention, a detached observation of what is happening within us and around us in the present moment. In the practice of right mindfulness the mind is trained to remain in the present, open, quiet, and alert, contemplating the present event. All judgments and interpretations have to be suspended or if they occur, just registered and dropped. Right Mindfulness focuses us on the truth about what is happening in the body, mental feelings and thoughts etc. Right Concentration is the development of the attention enabling to develop the mind that brings the strengths and freedoms including the clarity of mind and calmness to stay on the path of Good Conduct. Mental ability to see things with clear knowledge or the sense of one's personal or collective identity or awareness, try to be aware of the "here and now" instead of "there and then"
8) Right Meditation or Mindfulness. – samyak - samadhi, samma-samadhi
Right knowledge is seeing things as they really are by direct experience, not as they appear to be, nor as the practitioner wants them to be, but as they truly are. Right Mindfulness focuses us on the truth about what is happening in the body, mental feelings and thoughts etc. Right Concentration is a development of this attention, enabling to develop the mind that brings the strengths and freedoms including the clarity of mind and excited to stay on the path of Good Conduct. Mental ability to see things with clear knowledge or the sense of one's personal or collective identity or awareness, try to be aware of the "here and now" instead of "there and then"
Correct concentration: to keep a steady, calm and attentive state of mind (universal emptiness) or the Natural Joy. To realize the true nature of things the mind need to be steady and calm. The practice of developing Right View is to distinguishing between right and wrong, good and bad that leads to a complete understanding of the Four Noble Truths. Right View is free from delusion and ignorance and moves very easily into deep wisdom, clear sight and the ego disappear which leads to the stage of enlightenment and the ego gets disappear.
These two factors are the end result of correctly practicing the noble eightfold path, which arise during the practice of right concentration. The first to arise is right knowledge: this is where deep insight into the ultimate reality arises. The last to arise is right liberation: this is where self-awakening occurs and the practitioner reaches the pinnacle of their practice.
Samadhi: concentration, meditation and mental discipline
Samadhi is literally translated as "concentration", it is achieved through training in the higher consciousness, which brings the calm and confidence needed to develop true wisdom by direct experience. Traditionally, the practice of samadhi can be developed through mindfulness of breathing (anapanasati), through visual objects (kasina), and through repetition of phrases (mantra). Samadhi is used to suppress the different kinds of confusion of mind to get enter into jhana. Jhana is an instrument used for developing wisdom by cultivating insight and using it to examine true nature of phenomena with activities of thinking, understanding. This leads to cutting off the unclean thoughts by realizing the dharma and, finally self-awakening. During the practice of right concentration, the practitioner will need to investigate and verify their right view. In the process right knowledge will arise, followed by right liberation.
The eightfold Path is the teachings of the Prajnaparamita Sutra. Prajnaparamita Sutra is believed to be the highest form of Buddhist teaching. The way to the end of suffering is to choose middle path by balancing the luxury and hardship, utilizing the minimum requirements to have the livelihood. Right knowledge is seeing things as they really are by direct experience, not as they appear to be, nor as the practitioner wants them to be, but as they truly are. A result of Right Knowledge is the tenth factor - Right liberation. These two factors are the end result of correctly practicing the noble eightfold path, which arise during the practice of right concentration. The first to arise is right knowledge: this is where deep insight into the ultimate reality arises. The last to arise is right liberation: this is where self- awakening occurs and the practitioner reach the pinnacle of their practice.
Right Mindfulness focuses us on the truth about what is happening in the body, mental feelings and thoughts etc. Right Concentration is a development of this attention, enabling to develop the mind that brings the strengths and freedoms including the clarity of mind and calmness to stay on the path of Good Conduct. Mental ability to see things with clear knowledge or the sense of one's personal or collective identity or awareness, try to be aware of the "here and now" instead of "there and then". Correct concentration: to keep a steady, calm and attentive state of mind (universal emptiness) or the Natural Joy. To realize the true nature of things the mind need to be steady and cal. The practice of developing Right View is to distinguishing between right and wrong, good and bad that leads to a complete understanding of the Four Noble Truths. Right View is free from delusion and ignorance and moves very easily into deep wisdom, clear sight and the ego disappear which leads to the stage of enlightenment and the ego gets disappear.
Buddhism has always been concerned with feelings, emotions, sensations, and mental processes. The emotional cause is desire and a strong feeling of not liking something. The conscious mental activities are the main cause of ignorance related to the things truly occur, or three marks of existence: that all things are unsatisfactory, impermanent, and without essential self. The way leading to stop or make an end to the suffering is the noble eightfold path, believed to be the highest form of Buddhist teaching. The way to end the suffering is to choose middle path by balancing the luxury and hardship, utilizing the minimum requirements to have the livelihood. Middle Path, choosing and balancing the luxury and hardship is the treatment for the problem of suffering in our lives. Noble Eightfold Path can only work if a person choose to apply it to their lives, and takes full responsibility in following the steps. The Noble Eightfold Path is a very systematic and methodical approach to solve the problem of suffering in life, and achieving a state of wisdom, peace and Nirvana. The programmer first develops character and personality, and then develops ethical conduct and restraint which promote concentration.
Concentration and mindfulness help make the mind free from ignorance and blossom into wisdom (access higher knowledge). Wisdom brings a clear understanding of the truth about how things really are. This leads craving and desire to end from the mind (detachment) that brings freedom from suffering and the end of suffering brings Supreme Happiness. The Noble Eightfold Path describes the teachings as a formula which is described in simple steps and includes both physical and mental treatment for getting a end of suffering. The goal of the Noble Eightfold Path is to bring a true understanding of the Four Noble Truths and deliver their ultimate Teaching - the end of suffering. The Path develops character and personality by showing the way to live a virtuous life, develop wisdom and finally to attain the highest qualities of a human being and develop the Buddhahood. This is the ultimate goal of the Eightfold Path and all eight ways of practice must be followed in order to attain it. The Path is specifically aimed at developing behavior, mind and knowledge and the eight steps are divided into those three ways of practice, which are Good Conduct, Mental Development and Wisdom.
The eightfold Path is the teachings of the Prajnaparamita Sutra.
Prajnaparamita Sutra is believed to be the highest form of Buddhist teaching. Prajnaparamita has been the subject of controversy since long and scholars are not able to trace its origin. The Chinese traveler Faxian described images of Prajnaparamita in India as early as 400 BC, but all known existent images date from 800 or later. Buddhist scholars agree that Prajnaparamita sutra represent the earliest layer of Mahayana sutra literature. Diamond Sutra (300 stanzas) also known as Vajrachedika Prajnaparamita Sutra is widely used and is also popularly known as portable edition of Prajnaparamita.
The circulations of the Prajnaparamita Sutra involved in three phases:
a) Memorization of the basic text
b) Systematic updating
c) Interpretations that made the text live for succeeding generation.
Scholar distinguish the development of the writing of the Prajnaparamita manuscript into four different phases:
1) 100 B.C. to 100 A. D. – Basic text elaboration: this period is characterized by the formation and composition of the basic text. The oldest text in this period is the Astashasrika Sutra or the Prajnaparamita in Eight Thousand Verses.
2) 100 A D to 300 A D – In this period the basic text are being expanded including these three Manuscripts were made:
a) Shatasahasrika (100,000 line)
b) Panchavimshasrika Sutra (25,000 lines)
c) Ashtadashashasrika Sutra (18,000 lines)
3) 300 A.D to 500 A.D –This period is characterized by the restatement of the basic ideas in short sutras having verified and summaries. The Diamond Sutra (300 stanzas) also known as Vajrachedika Prajnaparamita Sutra and the Hridaya Prajnaparamita Sutra (Heart Sutra with 14 and 25 verses ) belong to this period.
4) 500 AD to 1200 A.D. - This period is characterized by the influence of the Tantras, evidences of magical elements in the sutras and their usage. Adhyardhashatika Prajnaparamita Sutra (150 verses). (Edward, Conze: The Prajnaparamita Literature, The Reiyukai University, Tokyo 1978)

Hsuan-tsang, the Chinese scholar after completing his study (645 A.D.) in India brought with him some of the manuscript and started translating them into Chinese language. He also translated "The Great Prajnaparamita Text (worked between 659 and 663).
It is a collection of the sixteen sermons - Dharmadeshana in four different places, a) Vulture Peak, b) in Anathapindada's Park at Sravasti, c) in Paranirmitavasavartin the abode of Gods and d) at the Snowy Heron Pond in the Bamboo Park near Rajgriha.
Most of the manuscripts are in Sanskrit and are being originated and copied in Nepal. B.H. Hodgson collected Prajnaparamita from Nepal (1830 – 1840) written in Sanskrit was the first collection of its kind brought to Europe. Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita having Eight Thousand Verse is believed to be the oldest form of Prajnaparamita which is has been translated into Chinese language in 100 B.C. (Edward, Conze: The Composition of the Astashasrika Prajnaparamita, Bulletin of the School of Oriental & African Studies:–University of London Volume 14- No.2, 1952). The way to the end of suffering is to choose middle path by balancing the luxury and hardship, utilizing the minimum requirements to have the livelihood. Truth is found through the Middle Way by following Eightfold Noble Path stated below:-
The Trisatika, Pancasatika, Saptasatika, Sardhadvisahasrika, Astasahasrika, Astadasasahasrika, Pancavimsatisahasrika and Satasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra
1) Trisatika Prajnaparamita Sutra 300 lines, the Diamond Sutra or Vajracchedika Prajnaparamita Sutra
2) Pancasatika Prajnaparamita Sutra: 500 lines
3) Saptasatika Prajnaparamita Sutra: 700 lines Bodhisattva
Manjushree's exposition of Prajnaparamita
4) Sardhadvisahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra: 2500 lines
From the questions of Suvikrantavikramin Bodhisattva
5) Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra 8000 lines
6) Astadasasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra: 18,000 lines
7) Pancavimsatisahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra: 25,000 lines
8) Satasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra 100,000 lines Maha Prajnaparamita.
According to Joseph Walser, Pancavimsatisahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra (25,000 line) and Satasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra (100,000 lines) have a connection with Dharmaguptaka sect, while Astasahasrika Prajna Paramita Sutra (8000 lines) does not have any sect. ------ Williams, Paul. Mahayana Buddhism:-The Doctrinal Foundations 2008
The Heart Sutra (Prajnaparamita Hridaya in 14 line & 25 line) and Diamond Sutra (300 stanzas) are renowned throughout the world and have been translated into many languages and often been commented upon by scholars. Tantric versions of the Prajnaparamita literature were believed to have been in practiced as early as 500 AD. Images of Prajnaparamita deity are found throughout Southeast Asia, Nepal and Tibet.
The oldest image of Prajnaparamita found until to-day is the stone sculpture from Singosari, East Java kept in the Pusat Museum that belong to thirteenth Century (13th Century). (Credit: Courtesy of the Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden, Netherland)
She is usually represented in yellow or white colour, with one head and two arms (sometimes more), the hands in the teaching gesture (dharmachakra - mudra) holding a Lotus and a book. The image found in Nepal has four hand holding rosary, sword (to clean ignorance), bowl (renunciation of material goods being a prerequisite to obtain wisdom) and the thunderbolt (symbolizing the emptiness- vajra). In Vajrayana (Tantric) Buddhism, she is described as the female consort of Adi-Buddha (first Buddha).
Conclusion: -
Prajnaparamita teachings are held by some Tibetan Buddhists to have been conferred upon Nagarjuna by Nag raja, King of Nagas, who had been guarding them at the bottom of the ocean. Tantric versions of the Prajnaparamita literature were produced from the year 500 CE. Some of the ancient manuscripts are in the collection of Museums around the world. The following two collections are very important and authentic, The Heart Sutra (smallest of its kind having only 14 Stanza in Sanskrit) is in New York Museum and the Perfection of wisdom (having 8,000 stanzas / shloka) in Tibetan Script from Copenhagen Royal Library.
There are Prajnaparamita also written in other languages found in many South Asian Countries, India, Tibet, China, Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, Cambodia, Vietnam, Myanmar, Java, Sumatra, Bali, Thailand, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh but most of the Scholars do believe the one from Sri Lanka is the oldest and is called the authentic collection as it is written in Pali script. (Pali is the oldest script among other used in Buddhist Text). In addition to these, there is also other Prajnaparamita sutras such as the Heart Sutra (Prajnaparamita Hridaya), which exists in both 14-line and 25-line versions. Regarding the shorter texts, Edward Conze in his book "The Short Prajnaparamita Texts - 1973" writes, according to merit the Diamond Sutra and the Heart Sutra are renowned throughout the world. Both have been translated into many languages and have often been commented upon.
There are more Prajnaparamita manuscripts in other languages found in many South Asian Countries Tibet, China, Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, Cambodia, Vietnam, Java, Sumatra, Bali, Myanmar, Thailand, Sri Lanka, India and Bangladesh. Most of the Scholars are of the opium that the oldest and authentic one is from Sri Lanka. The oldest Prajnaparamita manuscript (written during the period of Manipaldeva the king of Bengal 1020 AD) from the collection of Cambridge University is written in Ranjana script, highlights the origin of Ranjana Script from India. Dr. Regmi, Dinesh Chandra, Purlekhana Paricaya VS 2048/ 1991 (Nepalese Paleography - in Nepali -Page 102)
The oldest Prajnaparamita manuscript (written during the period of Manipaldeva the king of Bengal 1020 AD) from the collection of Cambridge University is written in Ranjana script, highlights the origin of Ranjana Script from India. (From the collection of Indian Art Museum, Berlin –Dr. Regmi, Dinesh Chandra, Purlekhana Paricaya VS 2048/ 1991 Nepalese Paleography - in Nepali -Page 102)
There are many Viharas in and around Kathmandu Valley where they do have collections of Buddhist manuscripts written by different scholars and are displayed during the holy month GUNLA - August / September.
There is Prajnaparamita manuscript also in the collection of National Achieve as well in Asha Saphu Kuthi, (Asha Archives), Kaiser Library and National Library in Nepal. Most of those collections are in small version /volume but the one in Vikramshila Mahavihar, Thamel sounds to be more authentic and has more Stanzas (shlokas) and is nicely written with real golden ink (dated 344 NS / 1233 AD). Prajna paramita from Patan, Rudra Varna Mahavihar is dated 216 NS/ 1105 AD and from Hiranya Varna Mahavihar is dated 336 NS / 1225 AD (Hem Raj Shakya and T.R. Vaidya, 1970 Medieval Nepal: Colophons and inscriptions, Kathmandu page 6)
The tradition of copying texts was regarded as an act of merit among Nepalese Buddhists, and this was the main reason that Nepal came to have such a huge collection of Buddhist manuscripts. Ordinary (lay) Buddhists purchased those texts and used them for religious purposes. Most are written in Sanskrit, using Newari, Ranjana, Bhujimol and Devanāgarī scripts.
The manuscripts, written on palm leaves and collected in birch bark folios, are preserved intact and are in surprisingly good condition. The copiers were either Newars or Brahmins, given their use of scripts that belonged to the literate class of that time. Lay people as well as royalty, including some Nepalese kings, took a keen interest in copying manuscripts.

Vikramshila Mahavihar
Thambahil, Simhakalpanagar

Vikramshila Mahavihar Simhakalpanagar is the ancient name of Bhagwan Bahal, Thamel Kathmandu. Mahavihar signify it to be a higher teaching institute same as a University, Thambahil signify it to be the monastery of high significance & pride.
Simhakalpanagar denotes it as a separate city or town. Bahi is the old form of Nepalese monastery usually located in a peaceful place far from the city settlement and are made in a plinth little above the level of the ground and are constructed in a very simple form. Originally Bahis were designed as a place for training, perching, copying the religious text; as a teaching institute; boarding for the students and shelter for the visiting monks. After the introduction of Vajrayan cult a new kind of monastery known as bahal were constructed (with some lavish decoration) in the city settlement to accommodate the married monks living together with their family.(Korn, Wolfgang, 1976 - The Traditional Architecture of Kathmandu Valley, Bibliotheca Himalayan Series 2, Ratna Pustak Bhandar, Kathmandu).
The Saharsha Prajnaparamita a rare collection of four volumes of highest Buddhist manuscript in this temple complex has a close relationship with Manjushree. The legendary Caravan to Lhasa leaded by Simhala Sarthbaha also does have main historical significance to its establishment. Some of the travel records made by scholars from India, Tibet and China also did mention about the glory of this temple during the 11th and 13th century; still lots of real facts are missing. The oldest available document related to this temple is of the visits of Pundit Atisa from India in the early 11th century (1041 AD)
In this short article I am trying my best effort to high light some facts to make understand a common reader about this ancient temple complex: lots of investigation and research need to be conduct to identify its past glory, as we are left with few documents.
Swayambhu Puran is one of the oldest manuscripts narrating the story of the evolution of Kathmandu Valley. According to the legend Kathmandu Valley was a lake surrounded by mountains. Kanakmuni Bodhisattva is believed to have thrown a lotus seed in the lake. A big lotus with thousand leaves blossomed in the center of lake that attracted visitors from around the globe.
Manjushree Bodhisattva is believed to have visited this place and meditated in Phulchoki (Phullichho) and Jamachho (Jatamatroccho). He is believed to have drained the valley by cutting the edge of the hill with the divine sword. (Chovar being the only exit for all rivers in Kathmandu Valley and the black soil found everywhere in Kathmandu Valley does testify it to be a lake earlier).
Manjushree is the Bodhisattva of Divine wisdom representing the infinite and eternal wisdom of Buddha. Manjushree holds a sword in his right hand and a book of perfection (Prajnaparamita) in the left hand.
The first historical important evidence of Than Bahi is the visit of Pundit Atisha Shrijana (982- 1054) and spent one year studying Buddhist philosophy during 1041 - 42 AD. He was the head pundit of Nalanda University and was invited by Tibetan king to visit Tibet to teach and revive Buddhism. On his way to Tibet he spent one year in Nepal (1041 - 42), most of his time was spent in Than Bahi and is believed to have studied the Buddhist philosophy and has written books in Sanskrit. (But the name of Prajnaparamita is not mentioned by Atisha)
The Saharsha Prajnaparamita a rare collection of four volume of highest Buddhist manuscript in this temple complex has a close relationship with Manjushree. The legendary Caravan to Lhasa leaded by Simhala Sarthbaha also does have main historical significance to its establishment.
Some of the travel record made by scholars from India Tibet and China also did mention about the glory of this temple during 11th and 13th century, still lots of real facts are missing.
Dharmashri Mitra, a renowned scholar from Vikramshila Vihar, Nalanda, India is believed to visit Nepal for advance study in Buddhism and Sanskrit in the early 13th Century. He did study in Thambahi, which clearly indicates the high importance of Thambahi and the similarity of the name Vikramshila indicates the name might have been given by him. Traditional Architecture of Kathmandu Valley: by Wolfgang Korn, Ratna Pustak Bhandar, 1976 (Text by Purnaharsha Vajracharya). Recent Archeological excavation in Nalanda got a new light about the existence of Vikramshila Vihar as one of the old teaching institution for higher study in Buddhism in the early first century BC.
A historical evidence of the restoration of the temple in 408NS/1287 AD by Hari Singh during the reign of king Parthvendra Mall is being mentioned in the Toran, the semicircular wood archive kept in the main entrance of the temple. (It did have nice carvings of the image of Prajnaparamita which was stolen some 40 years ago; a new Toran is kept now as a replacement). The brick paving and the restoration of the temple complex in Thambahi was done by Hari Simha during the reign of king Parthivendra Malla is also mentioned in one of the stone inscription kept in National Archive. (The stone inscription no. 173), Rajvamsi, Sanker Man 2027 VS in Kantipur Silalekh Suchi published by HMG National Archive page 125.
Almost all Vihars in and around Kathmandu valley are being managed by the community of priest family either by Bajracharya or Sakya (Gristha Bhishu) family but this Vihar is exceptional where Pradhan family do control the management to run the day to day activities as well as various rituals during festivals.
Simhala Sarthabaha is believed to have established Bhagwan Bahal and the entire daily rituals and activities during the festival are being controlled by the Pradhan family from Thamel, who believe themselves as the descendants of Simhala Sarthabaha.
We see Gaju on the roof tops of the religious buildings and temples; and chaitya in the Buddhist temple. Both the Hindu as well as Buddhist temple has Gaju (the roof top) a kalash (water Pot) design but the main shrine of Thambahi has a chaitya and a metallic mirror on the roof. A banner of white cloth along with a metallic belt hangs down from the metallic mirror (Lucke, John K. Karunamaya 1986 p 474)

Saharsha Prajnaparamita

The four volume of Saharsha Prajnaparamita manuscript in the collection of Thambahi is dated Nepal Sambat 344 Margasira Pratipada (1223 AD) is believed to have written by Jinashri Jnana and started by Manjushree. Jinashri is supposed to get inspired by Manjushree and found an auspicious moment to start writing the manuscript, but felt asleep; Manjushree is believed to have started writing the first three pages with his finger. (The first three pages do have big script different than the remaining page). When he woke up, found the auspicious moment already passed and was laminating; Manjushri came forward and instructed him to start writing without any disturbances as he has already started writing from the auspicious moment.
This is a legend but we have no evidence regarding how long it did took to write all the four volume. The date NS 344 (1223 AD) might be the date it was completed or the date mentioned by someone else? King Pratap Mall and Queen Lalmati after visiting this temple wrote three stanzas appreciating the holy manuscript Prajnaparamita (NS 780 / 1658AD). Pandit Hemraj Sakya in his Nepal Sanskritya Mulukha 1969 (Main entrance of the culture of Nepal) did mentioned this manuscript as Laksavati Prajnaparamita). This clearly indicate to have 100,000 stanza. It is believed that there were in total five volumes of Manuscripts. Tibetans did invade the temple and looted one volume which was recovered by the army and was deposited in Hanuman dhoka Palace during King Pratap Mall's period. Some people used to speak to have seen a manuscript having more similarity in script, being used during rituals in Sweat Bhairav temple in Hanumandhoka There are 54,864 total lines in the four Volumes, (27 lines in one page - nine lines in three rows) four volume containing 2032 page (517 pages in Vol.1, 506 in Vol. II, 512 in Vol. III and 497 in Vol. IV). We have no idea regarding the total number of pages in the missing volume kept in Hanumandhoka.
If we guess 500 pages in the missing volume it will add 13,500 lines making total 68,364 lines. It is very interesting facts about numerology in both Hindu and Buddhist mythology that number nine plays a vital role, this is clearly understood in the layout of the page with three row containing nine lines totaling twenty seven lines, adding two and seven makes nine so each and every volume also do have the same count ending with nine. This does not happen if we have eight lines with three rows even though nine lines with four rows do fulfill these criteria but the size do not look nice. The size of the page is rectangular nine inches by eighteen inches written in real golden ink, which looks like a print rather than a hand written manuscript as the character looks uniform and looking at the nice and bright prints, it is hard to believe it being written long ago.
During GUNLAA, the Buddhist holy months (ninth months of Lunar Calendar) the four volumes are given to the Bajracharya of four renowned Vihars of Kathmandu to recite from top to bottom and are paid for doing so. During the last day of the display of the manuscript the National (Royal) Kumari from Hanumandhoka is being carried on a chariot to Thambhil for viewing the manuscript and the head Priest from Hanumandhoka used to recite few lines from the first page and the last page in the presence of Kumari marking the end of reciting the holy manuscript Prajnaparamita.
This used to be the only time when the manuscript is able to be view by public. (Now a day's one can easily see it on paying fee that is used for the temple expenses). Many devotees from China, Tibet, India, Sikkim and Bhutan come visit Thambahi to pay to view and pay respect to this holy manuscript as it is believed to have written by the divine lord of learning Manjushree.
Manjushree: Legendary or Historical?
In the first chapter of Kalachakra Tantra, the main religious Text of Mahayan Buddhism, it is mentioned that 600 years after Buddha a great scholar Manjushree will be born to get a new renaissance of Buddhist thoughts, this clearly indicates Manjushree to belong to the First century AD, (Boudha Darshan by Baldev Upaddhaya, Sharada Mandir Kashi 2003 page 454 – 55. Same quote is also given in Maryada No, 13 pages 69-71). The Buddhist text Saddharma Pundarika, is also written by a Buddhist Monk named Manjushree during the first century (Legendary History of Kathmandu by John Luck page 412) and Late Bhuvan Lal Pradhan also did mentioned the legendary Manjushree belong to the first century in the article "Manjushree Legendary or historical" published in Nepali (Gorkhapatra 2048/2/11). The holy Satashasrika Pranjaparamita (100,000 verses 12 volumes in the Tibetan language) has been translated in ninth century by Jianshree Mitra, Subrenbodieg and Tibetan Monk Ye-Se-sde, (Bibliotheca Indica 1902-1913). This clearly indicates Jianshree to belong to the ninth century signifying his teacher Manjushree also to belong to this period. Edward Conze in his book "The Prajnaparamita Literature" (Manton, The Hague 1960) did mention that Jianmitra did translate this text in Tibetan language during the early 9th century. The date 344 NS (1223AD) mentioned at the end of the manuscript from Bhagwan Bahal, being written by Jianshri indicates another historical Manjushree to belong to the thirteen century (Jianshri was the disciple of Manjushree).There is some confusion regarding the legendary and three historical Manjushree (The legendary Manjushree from Mahachin (China), a scholar and Monk from India (1st Century), Teacher of Jianmitra (Jinashri 9th Century) and teacher of Jinashri (from the Prajnaparamita manuscript written in the 13th Century). The date 1223 AD/ 344 NS mentioned at the end of the Prajnaparamita manuscript from Vikramshila Mahavihar testify another historical Manjushree (a monk from Nalanda University, India) the teacher of Jinashree to belong to the 13th century. Jinashri is believed to have inspired from his teacher Manjushree and found an auspicious moment to start writing the manuscript. He felt asleep by the time and Manjushree is believed to start writing the first three pages with his finger. (The first three pages do have big script different than the remaining page). When he woke up, found the auspicious moment already passed and was laminating; Manjushree came forward and instructed him to start writing without any disturbances as he has already started writing from the auspicious moment. This is a legend but we have no evidence regarding how long it did took to write all the four volume. The date 1223 AD / 344 NS mentioned at the end of the manuscript might be the date it was completed or the date mentioned by someone else? King Pratap Mall and Queen Lalmati after visiting this temple (NS 780/ 1658 AD) during the festival did wrote three stanzas appreciating the holy manuscript Satashariska Prajnaparamita (Meaning 100,000 Stanza - Pundit Hem Raj Sakya, Nepal Sanskritya Mulukha 1969 (Main entrance of the culture of Nepal) We have no idea regarding the total page in the missing volume kept in Hanumandhoka).

The Jataka Tales
Stories of the Buddha's Former Births
Jataka (Buddhist Birth Stories - Jataka Tales), the story of the previous birth of Buddha is the oldest, most complete, and most important collection of folklore which contains a record of the everyday life, and everyday thoughts of the people.
The Jatakas so constituted were carried to Ceylon in the Pali language, when Buddhism was first introduced into that island (a date that is not quite certain, but may be taken provisionally as about 250 B.C.); and the whole tales were translated into the Singhalese language. Mahinda, the son of Asoka (in some text he is called on as the brother of Asoka), is believed to have collected 550 Jataka stories in Pali (the twenty-two Nipitaks) which were composed by the time of the council of Patna (held in about 250 BC). A Jataka Book is also found in the Anguttara Nikdya and in the Saddharma Pundarika.
The memoirs of Fah-hian (Faxian, the famous Chinese traveler 399-414 AD) who visited Abhayagiri in Sri Lanka (412 AD) and recorded 500 representations of Bodhisattva in successive births.
The Jataka Atthavannand (547 tales) belong to the third or fourth century BC is retold into its present form in Ceylon in the fifth century AD, the Pali text is edited by Professor Fausboll of Copenhagen in 1877 - 96. This Pali Text is the oldest collection of the Jataka Tales; it has been translated into English language by Edward Cowell (Cambridge 1895-1907). The 547 Jatakas do not include the Mahagovinda Jataka, which is mentioned in several early texts such as Nidana-katha and the Jatakakatha. Similarly some stories are repeated with the same name or with another, thus, the number of Jataka stories could also be more or a little less than 547 tales.
The story of the flying white horse is illustrated on the bas-reliefs of the temple of Boro-Boedoer in Java. 2 and on one side of a pillar in a Buddhist railing at Mathura, is a flying horse with people clinging to it from The Goblin City.
The story of the horse Balaha was immortalized in stone at the Angkor monument of Neak Pean during the 12th century CE along with his men on an island, on which ogresses appear as beautiful women but who eat their victims. One painting from Ajanta cave shows the pastimes of Prince Simhala's journey to Sri Lanka. He is shipwrecked and escapes on a flying horse, then later returns to the island and conquers it and established Buddhism.
Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang visited India in the seventh century A. D. and stayed here for fifteen years (629-645 AD), did not mention about Ajanta cave. In 1819 British officers of the Madras Army made a discovery of this magnificent site. They named it Ajanta after the name of the nearest village. After a gap of twenty-five years, James Fergusson presented a paper at the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland in 1843, highlighting its importance in term of Buddhism. This is the first scholarly study of the site which drew the global attention.
In all Jatakas from India, Sri Lanka, Tibet, China, Japan, Vietnam, Indonesia, the story of the rescue of five hundred merchants from the captive of Rakshasi by White Flying Horse, as the divine Lord Avalokiteswara, is mentioned and the story ends with the only member, the leader able to get back home safely leaving behind all other members under the captive of the Rakshasi, but nothing is mentioned about the Leader of the Legendary Caravan.

The Valahassa Jataka Tales
(Jataka Story: the Flying White Horse)
The Pali Jatakas, Divyavadana (heavenly stories) and the sixteenth-century Sanskrit text Gunakdrandavyuha narrates the story of Avalokiteswara as The Flying White Horse to help rescue the five hundred merchants from the captivity of the Raksasi - the Valahassa Jataka. The horse is represented as an incarnation of the Avalokiteswara in the Karandavyuha Sutra. The flying white horse is called Balaha in Jataka, the stories of Buddha's previous life. Simhsarthabahu is mentioned as one of the previous lives of Buddha in the 16th chapter of Gunakarandavyaha.
In one of the Jataka Stories the name of the leader of the group of merchant is mentioned as Simhala, who was the only member to get back to the other shore.
The Aśvarāja story relates the adventures of a caravan of merchants shipwrecked on an island of demo nesses and rescued by a flying horse, the aśvarāja, the 'king of horses'. The Simhala story continues this narrative to include the chief merchant, Simhala, being followed home by demons, who tries to get him back before seducing and eating the king. Simhala is crowned king and invades the island.

The Jataka Tales
(Stories of the Buddha's Former Births)

Jataka (Buddhist Birth Stories - Jataka Tales), the story of the previous birth of Buddha is the oldest, most complete, and most important collection of folklore which contains a record of the everyday life, and everyday thoughts of the people. (The Commentarial Introduction entitled Nidana Katha - The Story of the linage, Translated from Pali text by Prof. V. Fausboll of Copenhagen in 1877 and is translated into English language by Edward Cowell in 1895-1907).
Mahinda, the son of Asoka (in some text he is called on as the brother of Asoka), is believed to have collected 550 Jataka stories in Pali (the twenty-two Nipitaks) which were composed by the time of the council of Patna (held in about 250 BC). A Jataka Book is also found in the Anguttara Nikdya and in the Saddharma Pundarika.
The Jataka Atthavannand (547 tales), so constituted were carried to Ceylon in the Pali language, when Buddhism was first introduced into that island (a date that is not quite certain, but may be taken provisionally as about 250 B.C.); and the whole tales were translated into the Singhalese language.
The 547 Jatakas do not include the Mahagovinda Jataka, which is mentioned in several early texts such as Nidana-katha and the Jatakakatha. Similarly some stories are repeated with the same name or with another, thus, the number of Jataka stories could also be more or a little less.
The memoirs of Fah-hian (Faxian 399-414 AD), the famous Chinese traveler who visited Abhayagiri in Sri Lanka during 412 AD recorded 500 representations of Bodhisatta in successive births.


Valahasa Jataka
(The story of flying white horse)
In the Karandavyuha Sutra, the horse is presented as an incarnation of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteswora. The flying white horse is called Balaha in Jataka, the stories of Buddha's previous life
In the 16th chapter of Gunakarandavyaha Simhsartha bahu is mentioned as one of the previous lives of Buddha and in one the Jataka Stories the name of the leader of the group of merchant is mentioned as Simhala who was the only member to get back to the other shore. (The Jataka: Stories of the Buddha's Former Births -The Goblin City page 164/165, edited by E. B. Cowell, vol. 1 - 3. First published in 1895-1907)
The Sanskrit version of the Simhala story in the Gunakdrandavyuh as found in Y. Iwamoto, Bukkyo Setsuwa Kenkyu Josetsu (Kyoto: Hozokan, 1967, pp.247-94 / A. K. Ramanujan, "Who Needs Folklore?
The Pali Jatakas, Divyavadana (heavenly stories) and the 16th sixteenth-century Sanskrit text Gunakdrandavyiha narrates the story of Avalokitesvara as The Flying White Horse to help rescue the five hundred merchants from the captivity of the Raksasi the Valahassa Jataka. The horse is represented as an incarnation of the Avalokitesvara in the Karandavyuha Sutra. The flying white horse is called Balaha in Jataka, the stories of Buddha's previous life. Simhsarthabahu is mentioned as one of the previous lives of Buddha in the 16th chapter of Gunakarandavyaha. In one of the Jataka Story the name of the leader of the group of merchant is mentioned as Simhala, who was the only member to get back to the other shore. (The Jataka: Stories of the Buddha's Former Births -The Goblin City page 164/165, edited by E. B. Cowell, vol. 1 - 3. published in 1895-1907). The Relevance of Oral Traditions to South Asian Studies", South Asia Occasional Papers (University of Hawaii Vol.1, 1990)
The story of the white flying horse is illustrated on the bas-reliefs of the temple of Borobudur in Java (Leemans, Borobudur, page 389, Leide, 1874) and on one side of a pillar in a Buddhist railing at Mathura, is a flying horse with people clinging to it (Anderson, Catalogue of the Indian Museum, Journal of the Pali Society 1888: 189) from The Goblin City (Valahassa Jataka by Francis & Thomas page 189)
The story of the horse Balaha was immortalized in stone at the Angkor monument of Neak Pean (an artificial island with a Buddhist temple on a circular island in Cambodia) during the 12th century CE. (See Khmer Mythology by Vittorio Roveda, p. 65)
One painting from Ajanta cave shows the pastimes of Prince Simhala's journey to Sri Lanka. He is shipwrecked along with his men on an island on which ogresses appear as beautiful women, but who eat their victims. The princes escape on a flying horse, then later returns to the island and conquer it ().
Cave no. 17 of Ajanta Cave mention the story of Bhalaha horse as a form of Avalokiteswora helping the group of merchants from the Rakshisis. He is shipwrecked along with his men on an island on which ogresses appear as beautiful women, but who eat their victims. The prince escapes on a flying horse, then later returns to the island to conquer it and established Buddhism. (The Cave Temples of India: by James Fergusson and James Burgess, 1895; Behl, Benoy K: The Ajanta Caves).
In the travel account of the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang, who visited India in the seventh century A. D. and stayed here for fifteen years (629-645 AD), did not mention about Ajanta cave. In 1819 British officers of the Madras Army made a discovery of this magnificent site. They named it Ajanta after the name of the nearest village. After a gap of twenty-five years, James Fergusson presented a paper at the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland in 1843 highlighting its importance in term of Buddhism. This is the first scholarly study of the site which drew the global attention.
(Ajanta: Monumental Legacy by A.P. Jamkhedkar).
At the time, the Bodhisattva had come in to the world as a flying horse able to fly through the air from Himalaya he flew through the air until he come to Ceylon. These he passed over the ponds and tanks of Ceylon, and eat the paddy that grew wild there. As he passed on, thus he thrice uttered human speech filled with mercy- "Who wants to go home?" The traders heard his saying, and cried - "We are going home, master!" joints their hands, and raising them respectfully to their foreheads. "Then climb up on my back" said the Boddhisttva, Thereat some of them climbed up, some laid hold of his tail, and some remained standing, with respectful salute. Then the Boddhisattva took up even those who stood still saluting him, and conveyed all of them, even two hundred and fifty, to their own country, and set down each in his own place, and then he went back to his place of dwelling. And the she-globin, when other men come to the place, slew those two hundred and fifty who were left, and devoured them.
Hiuen Tsiang learned that Sri Lanka was known by several different names - Ratnadwipa "because of the precious gems found there", Silangiri and the Sorrow less Kingdom, which may be related to Ravana's Asoka Garden as mentioned in the Ramayana. Another name, Simhala, was derived from the name of the legendary founder and first king of the island. (Buddhism in Tibet by Emil Schlagintweit, Leipzig, London, 1863)
The Aśvarāja story relates the adventures of a caravan of merchants shipwrecked on an island of demonizes and rescued by a flying horse, the asvarsa, and 'king of horses'. The Simhala story continues this narrative to include the chief merchant, Simhala, being followed home by demons, who tries to get him back before seducing and eating the king. Simhala is crowned king and invades the island.
In all Jatakas from India, Sri Lanka, Tibet, China, Japan, Vietnam, Indonesia, the story of the rescue of five hundred merchants from the captive of Rakshasi by White Flying Horse, as the Devine Lord Avalokiteswara, is mentioned and the story ends with the only member, the leader able to get back home safely leaving behind all other members under the captive of the Rakshasi but nothing is mentioned about the Leader of the Legendary Caravan.In all Jatakas from India, Sri Lanka, Tibet, China, Japan, Vietnam, Indonesia, the story of the rescue of five hundred merchants from the captive of Rakshasi by White Flying Horse, as the Divine Lord Avalokitesvara, is mentioned and the story ends with the only member, the leader able to get back home safely leaving behind all other members under the captive of the Rakshasi but there is nothing mentioned about the Leader of the Legendary Caravan.
Some of the different sources related to the legendary story of the Avalokiteswora help rescue the group of five hundred merchants from the Cannibalistic demons (man eating Rakshasis - the she-goblins).

1) Valahassa Jataka from the Japanese Literature.
The Valahassa Jataka, as it is known in Pali, was transmitted across Asia from India to Japan. A Japanese scroll painting belonging to the 13th century illustrating the Valahassa Jataka is in the collection of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, the tale is known as Kannon-kyo (Kannon Sutra) in Japanese literature.
In the tale the name of the island is mentioned as Ceylon and a city of Cannibalistic demons. The name of the country of the five hundred merchant and the name of the leader are not mentioned.
In the tale the name of the island and the city of Cannibalistic demons is mentioned as Ceylon. The name of the country of the five hundred merchant and the name of the leader are not mentioned.
In this tale the five hundred merchant are called on as the disciples of Sakyamuni and the white flying horse as Bodhisattva. (The Flying White Horse: Transmission of the Valāhassa Jātaka Imagery from India to Japan by Julia Meech-Pekarik, Published by: Artibus Asiae Publishers Volume 43 n. 1-2 1981, page 111- 128)

2) The Valahassa Jataka - Indonesian version (Avadana Jataka)
Once upon a time, there was on the island of Lanka a goblin town called Sirisavatthu, the home of she-goblins. We find the story of a group of five hundred shipwrecked traders being rescued by five hundred she-goblins disguised as pretty nice looking young ladies. The chief of the traders got noticed the ladies as man eater goblins so he did request all member to flee from the city (Ceylon). Two hundred fifty members followed the chief and they were being helped by the white flying horse to cross the ocean. This is how the Jataka story ends with the rescue help made to the group of merchants by the flying white horse Balaha as one of the Buddha's previous life. The same story is repeated by E J Thomas in his book Jataka Tales.

3) The Valahassa Jataka - Tibetan version
In the history of Tibet called Rgyal-rabs-gsal-vai-me-lon (The mirror illustrating the lineage of the kings) Valahassa Jataka is mentioned in the sixth chapter. This was composed in the early 17th century with the narrative description of the animistic life in Tibet from an ape and a rakshasi and the description of the linage of the ruling king ending Sronbtsan sgam-po and the further history of the country to the time of the writer. (A Jataka Tale from the Tibeta by H. Wenzel (The Goblin City, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland page 503-511, published in 1888).)
In the Tibetan version of Valahassa Jataka, Singhala is mentioned as the name of the island, & the groups of five hundred merchants from India were being rescued from the Rakshasis by Lord Avalokiteswora in the form of flying horse.
Singhala is mentioned as the name of the island and the group of five hundred merchants from India were being rescued from the Rakshasis by Lord Avalokitecvara in the form of flying horse Balaha.

4) Valahassa Jatakaya (The birth story of the Flying Horse from Pali literature: Ceylon)
The story of rescue of five hundred merchant by the divine lord Avalokiteswara is also mentioned in Pali Literature in Ceylon.
This country has been known both for its copper deposits (perhaps that is the origin of "Tambapanni") and iron: in fact it has been said that we did not have a copper or bronze age, but that we went straight from the Stone Age to the Iron Age. Hence the reference to an "iron city" is intriguing. In fact, the slag heaps found in uncountable numbers all over the country is proof of a long-established industry which lasted into the 19th century, if not later.
This island is also known by the name Ratnadweepa as it was also popular for the precious gems found here. The Sanskrit word Sinhala has a meaning of "BARK", Cassia bark ('cinnamomum cassia'), which is also used as a substitute for cinnamon (cinnamomum verum also called 'cinna-momum zeylanica') which is native to Sri Lanka. It is believed that merchants from West Indian coast sail in small and big boats to this island since time immortal in search of the precious stone (Gems), Copper, Iron and Cinnamon.
It is also believed that the first king Vijaya arrived here on a boat after Buddha's parinirvana on 543 BC. In 1952 a large and well-made dugout boat was found in Kelanimulla, Kelaniya belonging to 380-480 BC and is kept in the Colombo Museum. (That has been radio carbon dated to 2300BP ± 100, which is 380 – 480 BC.
From the location it was found (Kelaniya) and the skill of the maker, one can say that Kalyani was occupied by a technologically advanced people. At Kelaniya, archaeological excavations have brought to light pottery named "black and red ware" which can be dated to.
It is fascinating to try one's hands at this type of detective work. But the purpose of this story is to find out who, were our first settlers, how did they come, and who did they meet here. The stories are there, but they are only stories. But scientific data is also there – and that data is probably more reliable. All that I can safely say, is that the settlers who came by sea along the western Indian coast were merchants: that they knew of our gems and therefore called this country Ratnadwipa; and they met an advanced people who knew how to mine and work in iron and copper, had the means of accessing the interior of the country by boat, lived in 'cities' and traded with Indian merchants. The Reality is therefore a long way from the fantasy land of the legends.
"Let it be noted that in Sanskrit 'sinhala' has the meaning of 'bark', 'Cassia bark. ('Cinnamomum cassia').
Now, this is a plant found in southern China and Indo China. Its bark is often used as a substitute for 'cinnamomum verum' (also called 'cinnamomum zeylanica') which is native to Sri Lanka.
Could it have been possible that Cinnamon – in addition to Gems, Copper and Iron – was another thing that brought the Indian merchants here: just as it brought the Europeans here two thousand years later? Our History, Myth, Legend upon Legend: Sunday Times, Sri Lanka, Sunday October 17, 2010

5) A Jataka-Tale (Dukanipata: No. 196) - Translated from the Pali Literature
In the Valahassa Jataka (No.196) the island Tambannidipa and Sirisavatthu is mentioned as a Yakkha city peopled by Yakkhinís who used to eat human flesh. Avalokiteswara, the divine lord is believed to get rescue the group of five hundred merchant in the form of a white flying horse. (The Jataka: Vol. II: Book II, translated from Pali. by W.H.D. Rouse, 1895, No. 196 Valahassa Jataka Page 90-92). Same story is mentioned in Jataka: The Illustrated Jataka & Other Stories of the Buddha by C.B. Varma and A Jataka-Tale from the Tibetan by H. Wenzel (The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland pp. 503—511)
In the Valáhassa Játaka the island Tambannidípa and Sirísavatthu is mentioned as a Yakkha city peopled by Yakkhinís who used to eat human flesh and Avalokiteswara, as a flying horse is believed to rescue the five hundred merchants from the Yakkhinis.

6) Goblin City (The Flying White Horse)
In the Jataka: Stories of the Buddha's Former Births, Ceylon is mentioned as the Goblin City and the leader of the group of merchant is mentioned as Simhala who was the only member able to get back to the other shore (The Jataka: Stories of the Buddha's Former Births edited by E. B. Cowell, volumes 1 - 3. First published in 1895-1907 under the title - THE Goblin City page 164/166)

7) Jataka Story from Ajanta Cave (cave no.17 and 19)
The largest number of paintings in the premises of Ajanta cave has the finest panel of paintings and murals depicting Simhala's shipwreck and encounter with a man-eating ogress and also of a lady admiring herself as she gazes intently into a mirror. (The Cave Temples of India by James Fergusson and James Burgess 1895 and Ajanta and Ellora: Cave Temples of Ancient India Pushpesh Pant).
Cave 17 has the largest number of paintings and murals than any of the other caves. The mural paintings in Cave no. 17 of Ajanta Cave mention the story of Bhalaha horse as a form of Avalokiteswara helping the group of merchants from the Rakshisis. Among the finest are a vast panel depicting Simhala's shipwreck and encounter with a man-eating ogress (Simhala Avadana).
The Ajanta caves are dated from the beginning of the Christian era, or earlier to the seventh century.

8) Hiouen Tsang's version of Simhala Avadana
It relates a story of the colonization of this country - which is called "Ratnadweepa", as it is in Hiouen Tsang's version - by "Sinhala", the son of Simha, a Merchant Prince who comes with 500 merchants in search of gems. He comes here, and meets a group of beautiful women who live in an iron city called Sirisavatthu. They are, in fact, cannibalistic Yakkhinis who can change their form, and they prey on shipwrecked sailors and merchants. Sinhala's ship is wrecked and he is saved by the Yakkhinis who present themselves as the widows of other merchants who have sailed on trading missions many years ago and are "presumed dead". Simhala believes the story and 'marries' the chief Yakkhini, but finds out who they are and manages to escape with two hundred and fifty of his men who believe him, with the help of a magical flying horse. His 'wife' follows him to his kingdom and presents herself, as the woman wronged by his son, to Simha's father. He believes her and gives her shelter. For his pains, she devours him and his whole household that night and returns to Ratnadweepa, where she kills and eats the 250 men who had not heeded Simha's call. Simhala succeeds his father as king and invades Ratnadweepa by sea, bringing an army complete with war elephants, by ship.

9) Indonesian Valahassa Jataka
Once upon a time, in the island of Ceylon (Tambapaṇṇidipa), there is a town called Sirisavatthu inhabited by the yakhsa women. Five hundred merchants shipwrecked near the town of yaksha woman. All five hundred merchants were rescued by five hundred yakhsa and they were living as husband and wife. Later in the evening, when their husband was asleep, the yakhsa went to the house of torture, killing several men there and prey on them. When the head Yakhsa came back the leader merchant noticed her body cold so he thought her to be a yakhsa.
The chief of the traders got noticed the ladies as man eater goblins so he did request all member to flee from the city (Ceylon). Next morning he spoke to his friends flee because they were being under the captive of the yakhsa. Two hundred merchant followed their leader and were being helped by white flying horse to cross the ocean.
The story ends with the story of Bodhisattva born into the world as a white horse flying from Himalayas to Ceylon and two hundred and fifty merchant as the disciple of the Buddha.
This is how the Jataka story ends with the rescue help made to the group of merchants by the flying white horse Balaha as one of the Buddha's previous life. The same story is repeated by E J Thomas in his book Jataka Tales (No. 196, The Goblin City page 164-166 published by Cambridge University Press in 1916 and in The Illustrated Jataka & Other Stories of the Buddha, Valahassa Jataka-196 by C.B. Varma)

10) The adventure of the Merchant Simhala is also mentioned by Professor Siegfried Lienhard with a description of a long scroll Painting 11.44 meter long and 0.55 meter wide with 80 frames each with the legend / story of Simshartha Bahu (Text in Nepali Script & the language Newari) from the collection of Museum of Indian Art, Berlin. Professor Siegfried Lienhard also did mention about this Scroll painting in his paper "A Nepalese painted Scroll Illustrating the Simhalavadan" (Nepalica 4 Sankt 49 - 53 Editors Prof. N. Gulschow & A. Micheals - Sankt. Augustine VGH Wissenschaflaverlage Page 51 - 53). Published in the Heritage of Kathmandu Valley, proceedings of an Int'l. Conference in Lubec June 1985)
Professor Siegfried Lienhard also published a book in German language with the detail of the above mentioned Scroll painting in 1985 entitled "Die Abenteure des Kaufmanns Simhala"- Museum fur Indische Kunst Berlin. (The adventure of Merchant Simhala published by Museum of Indian Art, Berlin).

11) Simhalasarthabahu Avadana
In Simhala Avadana it is mentioned about the birth of a son named Simhala to a wealthy merchant Simhaka, during the period of king Simhakesari from Simhakalpa. Simhala was selected as the leader of the group of five hundred merchants who were on a sea-voyage. The abode of rakshas is mentioned as Tamradvipa and Simhala was able to escape from the island on a magic white horse living behind all other members under the captive of the Rakshasis.
Professor Todd Lewis of the college of Holy Cross in Massachusetts, USA also published a paper on the localization of Simhalasarthabahu Avadana did mention Simhasartha bahu as the leader of the five hundred merchants in Newar-Tibetan Trade and the Domestication of Simhalasārthabāhu Avadāna.
Simhala (Simhala Sarthabaha) was the name of the legendary founder and first king of the island. The Sanskrit version of the Simhala story is mentioned in the Gunakdrandavyuh as found in Y. Iwamoto, Bukkyo Setsuwa Kenkyu Josetsu.
In Simhala Avadana it is mentioned about the birth of a son named Simhala to a wealthy merchant Simhaka, during the period of king Simhakesari from Simhakalpa. Simhala was selected as the leader of the group of five hundred merchants who were on a sea-voyage. The abode of rakshas is mentioned as Tamradvipa and Simhala was able to escape from the island on a magic white horse living behind all other members under the captive of the Rakshasis.
In Popular Buddhist Texts from Nepal: Narratives and Rituals in Newar Merchant Community (Columbia University: Ph. D. Dissertation, 1984), Todd Lewis mentioned the name of the leader of the group of the merchant leading to Lhasa as Simhala Sarthabaha, son of the Merchant Simhalasartha Bahu from the town of Simhakalpa in Jambudvipa.
Professor Todd Lewis of the college of Holy Cross in Masatuettse, USA also published a paper on the localization of Simhalasartha bahu Avadana did mention Simhasartha bahu as the leader of the five hundred merchants in Newar-Tibetan Trade and the Domestication of Simhalasarthabahu Avadāna. (Chicago Journal - History of Religion volume 33 no.2, November 1993 page 135-160)
Professor Todd Lewis in his article published in the Journal of Religion mention about a stupa in Lhasa known as Simsharthabahu Chorten and a shrine in Jokhang dedicated to his wife' that newar traders honor as the form of Jatika Ajima (Newar-Tibetan Trade and the Domestication of Simhalasarthabahu Avadan - source History of Religions, Vol. 33 No. 2, page 150, published by the University of Chicago Press 1993).
Simhala (Simhala Sarthabaha) was the name of the legendary founder and first king of the Srilanka Island. (Buddhism in Tibet: by Schlagintweit, Emil Leipzig, London, 1863). The Sanskrit version of the Simhala story is mentioned in the Gunakdrandavyuh as found in Y. Iwamoto, Bukkyo Setsuwa Kenkyu Josetsu (Kyoto: Hozokan, 1967, pp. 247-94, A. K. Ramanujan, "Who Needs Folklore? The Relevance of Oral Traditions to South Asian Studies: "South Asia Occasional Papers (University of Hawaii Vol.1, 1990).

12) Dr. Naomi Appleton:
a) Seduced by Sansara saved by a flying horse: A study of
the Asvaraja and Simhala Stories
(M.Phil. Thesis Cardiff University 2004)
b) The story of the Horse king and the Merchant Simhala
in Buddhist text - Buddhist studies Review 23/2 – 2006:187-201
c) Jataka Stories in Theravada Buddhism
(D. Phil. Thesis Oxford University 2008)

Simhala Avadana
(The Story of the Horse-King, and the Merchant Simhala in Buddhist Texts by Naomi Appleton)
Once upon a time a wealthy merchant named Simhaka used to live in the capital city of Simhakalpa ruled by king Simhakesari. When his wife gave birth to a beautiful son, Simhaka named him Simhala. After finishing his education, he asked his father for permission to go away on a sea-voyage. Simhaka was afraid of losing his beloved son and was not willing to send him for the voyage. Simhala left Simhakalpa in the company of five hundred merchants. They all took with them abundant merchandise. After visiting many places the merchants sold all their goods and made huge profits. On their way back they reached a place called Tamradvipa.
This place was the abode of rakshasis. On seeing the merchants, all the rakshasis took beautiful female forms and entertained the merchants. Each rakshasi took one of his friends home, fed him, made love to him and they lived as husband and wife. When all his friends were thus drugged to sleep, the rakshasis devoured them. The rakshasi entrusted with the task of devouring Simhala, he was able to escape showing the sword. Simhala then escaped from the island on a magic white horse.
From Tamradvipa, Simhala came to Jambudvipa. The rakshasi in the form of a very beautiful young lady followed him. She met a merchant from Madhya Desa. She promptly fell at his feet and said I am the daughter of the king of Tamradvipa and was married to Simhala. While crossing the ocean the ship encountered an accident. He left me as he thought me to be inauspicious. The merchant was impressed by her story and promised to help her. He blamed Simhala for not accepting the innocent girl. Simhala then told him that she was a rakshasi. From Jambudvipa Simhala returned to Simhakalpa. The rakshasi followed him there also. She came to the house of Simhala with a very handsome child, greatly resembling Simhala. She told Simhala's father the same old story. When Simhala came back home, his parents requested him to forgive his wife. Simhala then revealed the true nature of the innocent young girl.
When Simhala came back home, his parents requested him to forgive his wife. Simhala then revealed the true nature of the innocent young girl. After being denied by Simhala, the rakshasi went to the palace clamming her as the wife of Simhala and the child as his son.
After being denied by Simhala, the rakshasi went to the palace claiming her as the wife of Simhala and the child as his son. The king of Simhakalpa, Simhakesari ordered Simhala to accept her as his wife. Simhala told the king who she was and requested him to expel her. But the king was attracted by her beauty and kept her in the palace.
During diner the rakshasi mixed sleeping doses everyone including the king felt asleep. She then invited her rakshasi friends to come and join in the feast. She told them that they should stop claiming over Simhala instead of giving them one; she was giving them so may. The rakshasis entered the palace and started killing the king and his family. In the morning people saw vulture's rooming around the place. Simhala entered the palace climbing through a ladder.
Then he searched the entire palace but could not find any of the royal family members as all were killed by the rakshasi. The ministers and the people decided to offer the crown to Simhala. The crown was then offered to Simhala who accepted it on the condition that the people would obey him without question. On assuming the throne, he raised a powerful army and invaded Tamradvipa. When king Simhala with his army marched upon Tamradvipa, the rakshasis surrendered to him and agreed to leave the island. The island was then colonized by Simhala and was named Simhaladvipa after him.
The ministers and the people decided to offer the crown to Simhala. The crown was then offered to Simhala who accepted it on the condition that the people would obey him without question. On assuming the throne, he raised a powerful army and invaded Tamradvipa. When king Simhala with his army marched upon Tamradvipa, the rakshasis surrendered to him and agreed to leave the island. The island was then colonized by Simhala and was called Simhaladvipa after him.

The Legendary story of the Lhasa Caravan
The story popular among Pradhan, a Newar Buddhist family from Thambahi is different than the Jataka Tales. The Poubha (Wilampau, Thangka painting, and Scroll painting) being displayed in the main courtyard of Bhagwan Bahal, during the holy months of Gunlaa narrates the legendary story of the Lhasa Voyage being led by Simhala Sarthabaha.
A copy of wall hanging (Poubha, Wilampau, Thangka painting, Scroll painting) narrating the story of the legendary caravan to Lhasa is being displayed in the main courtyard of Bhagwan Bahal (Thambahi) during the festival of the holy month Gunlaa, the ninth months according to the Nepali Lunar Calendar, narrates the legendary story of the Lhasa Voyage, being leaded by Simhala Sarthabaha. Simhala Sarthabaha is believed to have established Bhagwan Bahal and the entire daily rituals and activities during the festival are being controlled by the Pradhan family from Thambahi, who believe themselves as the descendants of Simhala Sarthabaha. Even today Pradhans from Thambahi do not visit Lhasa as they are scared of being attracted by the she devils as a revenge.
According to the legend (a non-historical or unverified story), a group of five hundred young businessmen left for a caravan to Lhasa. The group did select Simhala, a merchant with rich knowledge, as their leader.
Sarthabaha is used to identify the leader of the merchants, in some of the early texts as well as in the poem from Kalidasa in the early 11th century. This is how Simhala the leader of the Caravan got a new name Simhala Sarthabaha (also called upon as Simhsartha bahu). While crossing the River Bhramputra, they encountered an accident and were being rescued by five hundred young and exceptionally beautiful ladies. All members of the caravan were busy doing business and enjoying with the young ladies as their wife, so they did not thought of returning back home. Simhala Sarthabaha used to worship the family God Avalokiteshwara (Karunamaya) daily. One day Simhalasarthabaha was given the divine sight of Lord Avalokiteshwara (Karunamaya) while in meditation and worship. In the dream Lord Avalokiteshwara told him that they are being under the captive of the she-devils (the man eater) and told him to leave the city as soon as possible as it is a bewitched island. He was instructed to go to the northern side of the city to check a big compound surrounded by tall walls like a well, where they used to throw the human skeletons after eating the flesh.
Avalokiteshwara also did promise to help them cross the river as a flying white horse. He went there and was able to climb a tree, and saw lots of human skeletons behind the tall wall, where they were forbidden to visit. He got convinced himself about the dream after visiting the northern side of the city. He made the plan to get an escape from the evil eyes of the damsels whom they mistakenly thought of their beloved wives. He was able to get convinced his friends about the instruction of the divine Lord and made a plan to live the bewitched land as soon as possible.
They left their home in the middle of the night when their wives were fast asleep and came close to the River. Simhala Sarthabaha did worship the divine Lord and a flying white horse appeared. The horse instructed all them to get a ride and warned them not to look behind while crossing the river and enchant the holy Triratna Mantra. While they were crossing the river, all ladies woke up and could not find the young merchants sleeping next to them. They started flying over the river laminating and requesting them to return back home. Hearing the kind hearted voice of their wife (the she-devil) all members except Simhala Sarthabaha looked behind and were taken back to the other side of the river. Simhala Sarthabaha was the only person who did not look behind, and did not forget to enchant the Mantra of Triratna, so was able to get back home leaving behind all his friends under the captive of the wretched women. (She- devil)
The chief devil disguised as a young and exceptionally beautiful lady followed Simhala Sarthabaha and came to the Royal court with a baby on her lap claiming herself to be the wife of Simhala Sarthabaha. Simhala Sarthabaha did try to convince the king that she is a man eater and denied to accept them as his wife and son. The king then kept her in the palace as he was attracted with the exceptional beauty of the lady. In the middle of the night she called all her companions and started killing the members of the Royal family and the staff. Next day when the palace door did not open so Simhala Sarthabaha entered the palace climbing through a ladder. He was no more able to find anybody but the human skeleton scattered all over the palace court yard, as all Royal family members along with the staff were killed and eaten by the she devils. He found the human skeletons scattered around the palace and saw the she devils sleeping around the courtyard. With the Devin sword he is believed to have killed all the Dankinis except his wife who did beg pardon for her life.
Simhala Sarthabaha was nominated as the leader of the community as all members of the Royal family were killed by the she-devil. This is how he got a new name Garud literally meaning army chief and later on was able to become the king and called Garudjuju. (Pradhan, Bhuban Lal, 2047, Kathmandu Upatyeka ka Chirka Mirka Page 72).
After being pardoned from her life she is being ordered to make a solemn vow to protect the entire community and in return she also made a proposal to protect the community lest there be no opening in the rooftop of the buildings. This is why even today the Pradhans from this locality do not have open roof-tops in their houses.
She was then asked which portion of the rice she wants to have - the first, middle or the last. She spoke to have the first one thinking herself as senior so this is how she got the sticky water (Jati). This is how even today the sticky water (Jati) is being poured to the image of Jatika Ajima, before reaching the rice bowl to Garud Bhagwan. She has made a vow to protect the entire community; she also made a proposal lest there be no openings in the rooftops of the buildings. This is why even today the Pradhans from the locality do not have open rooftops in their houses.
Newar Buddhist traditions Ajima is known as child eating carnivorous Rakhishi being converted to Buddhism by Lord Buddha and is given the duty to take care of the children. Most of the prominent Newar viharas have temples dedicated to her (Ajima). Simhala Sarthabaha was nominated as the leader of the community as all members of the Royal family were killed by the she devil. This is how he got a new name Garud literally meaning army chief and later on was able to become the king and called Garudjuju. (Pradhan, Bhuban Lal, 2047 Kathmandu Upatyeka ka Chirka Mirka Page 82)
Simhal Sarthbahu donated land and is believed to have established Thambahi in his home town; with the wealth he earned from Lhasa (the traders usually bring Gold from Tibet).
He was able to win victory over the bewitched island and was also able to introduce Buddhism there. Later on with his spiritual power and intellectual knowledge, he gained popularity as a form of Divine God – Dipankara Garud Bhagwan. His wife also is honored as a divine god Ajima, the proctector Goddess (Jatika Ajima).
The hero of the story is regarded as a bodhisattva and a large gilded image of him is enshrined in one of the Kathmandu's oldest Buddhist temples in Thambahi, dating back to the eleventh century. (Puma Harsha Bajracarya, Than Bahil: An Ancient Centre for Sanskrit Study, Indologica Taurinensia 7, 1979: 62-64). The small shrine outside the Bikramshila Mahavihar, Thambahi is dedicated to the raksasi wife of Simhala Sarthabaha known as Jatika Ajima.

Baidyo Boayagu

The ninth month of the lunar calendar so called GUNLAA is being celebrated as the holy month by the Newar Buddhist community in Kathmandu Valley. During this festival antiques, images of Dipankar and different God and Goddess, traditional clothing's Paubha Painting (Wilampau, scroll painting Thanka painting) are displayed in the courtyard of Buddhist shrines - Baha and Bahi and is called Baidyah Boayagu.
A copy of ancient wall hanging (Poubha, Wilampau, Thangka painting, Scroll painting) narrating the story of the legendary caravan to Lhasa is being displayed in the main courtyard of Bhagwan Bahal (Thambahi) during the festival of the holy month Gunlaa, the ninth months (it starts from the dark moon night of the Festival of Lights), according to the Nepali Lunar Calendar, narrates the legendary story of the Lhasa Voyage, being led by Simhala Sarthabaha.

Simhala Sarthabaha

The Poubha (scroll painting) being displayed in the main court of Thamel, during the holy months of Gunlaa narrates the legendary story of the Voyage to Lhasa, being led by Simhala Sarthabaha.
Simhala Sarthabaha is mentioned as one of the previous life of Buddha in the 16th chapter of Gunakarandavyaha. In one of the chronological history (Bansabali) from Kaiser Library the story of Lhasa caravan was mentioned during the reign of King Gunakamadeva (NS 107-110/ 987-990 AD) and in some writings he is mentioned as to belong to the period of Singhketu descendent of Gunakamadeva.
Simhala Sarthabaha is calling him the Jewel Trader Bhagwan (Chhong Nurbu Saange or Tsongpon Norbu Sangpo - Chhong meaning Trader; Tsongpon meaning Leader of Traders; Nurbu meaning Jewel and Saange or Sangpo meaning Bhagwan).
Both Simhsarthabahu and his wife Jatika Ajima are given equal honor as the form of diven God by the Tibetan people, there is a chorten (Temple) in Zhugong near Lhasa called Simhsarthabahu Chorten and a shrine of his wife in Jokhang that contain the image of his wife. (Newar Tibetain Trade and the Domestication; Professor Todd Lewis, page 152).
Simhala Sarthabaha is believed to be the first merchant to establish trade in Tibet.

Conclusion
The Jataka Tale definitely speak of the story of the Divine Lord Avalokiteshwora as a white flying horse and the help rescue of the five hundred merchants but the name of the Globin City populated by the man eating ogresses is still not clear – Is it Lhasa or Ceylon (Sri Lanka)?
Some of the ancient Manuscripts along with the old Thanka painting from the collection of German Museum clearly mention Srilanka as the Globin City and the rescue of the five hundred merchants were done by the she devils. (DIE ABENTEUER DES KAUFMANNS SIMHALA: 1985 - The adventure of the merchant Simhala).
Gunakarandavyuha and Simhala Sarthabaha Avadan and the legendary story narrated in the scroll painting from Thambahi along with the image of Garuda Bhagwan has a strong support to identify the name of the Globin City to be Lhasa not Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Simhala Sarthabaha as the leader of the legendary Lhasa voyage.
Atisa the renowned scholar from Vikramshila Vihar did spent one year (1041/42 AD) in Nepal before departing to Tibet, most of his time was spent in Thambahi but he did not mentioned about Garud Bhagwan nor the Holy Sahashra Prajnaparamita manuscript from Bikramshila Mahabihar, Thambahi.
The monastery in Itubahal is believed to have established by Bhashkardeva (NS 165-167 / 1045-1047 AD) and later on got renovated by Kesh Chandra brother in law of Simhsarthabahu (Bhaskardeva sanskarita Kesh Chandra krita parabrata Mahavihar from the stone inscription of Itumbahal).
We can thus conclude that Simhala Sarthabaha belong to a period after Bhashkardeva 11th century (NS 165-167 / 1045-1047 AD) or after Kalidasa (early 11th century) or Atisa (1041 AD) and Bhashkardeva. (1047 AD).

A garland of Gold to you the listener!
A garland of flowers to you the storyteller!
Now may these stories go to the heaven?
And when it is time to retell them
Come Back immediately again!
This is the traditional way of closing storytelling in Nepal.

Reference books (For further studies)

Anderson, Mary M. 1971: The Festival of Nepal
Anderson, Catalogue of the Indian Museum

Bajracharya, Badriratna, 1986 Buddhism in Nepal, Kathmandu


Bhikhu Sudarshan Simshartha Bahu wa Kabir Kumar ya bakhan

Chattopadhyaya, Alka 1967: Atisha and Tibet

Conze, Edward, 1970 Journal of Royal Asiatic Society
Buddhist Thoughts in India Preliminary Note on Prajnaparamita Manuscript

Dass, Sarat Chandra, 1893 Indian Pundits in the land of Snow, Asiatic Society of India

David J Kalupahana: A History of Buddhist Philosophy
David N Gellner, 2005; Rebuilding Buddhism: The Theravada Movement in 20th Century

David N Gellner, Niels Gutschow Bijaya Basukala (Illustrator) The Nepalese Caitya

David Snellgrove, 1987: Indo Tibetan Buddhism

Deba Priya Barma: Atisha Dipankar Srijana: Eye of Asia

Kesar Lal 2007: Legends of Kathmandu Valley

Legge, James in association with Max Muller prepared the Monumental Sacred books of the East Series 50 volume (1879 -1891)

Leemans, Borobudur, Leide, 1874


Lienhard, Professor Siegfried
1985 Die Abenteuer des Kaufmanns Simahala Eine m nepalische Bilderrole dus der Sammlungen des Museums fur Indische Kunst Berlin. Veroffent lichungen des Museums fur Indische Kunst Berlin (7).
The Adventure of the Merchant Simhala – A Nepalese Role mode images of the collection of the Museum of Indian Art, Berlin. Publication of the Museum of Indian Art, Berlin (7).
(The Museum of East Asian Art and the Museum of Indian Art were merged in December 2006 and now operate under a new joint name, the Museum of Asian Art.
Nepalese Manuscripts Newari/ Sanskrit; 1988

Locke, John K. S. 1980
----- Karunamaya: The cult of Avaloketesvara
----- Buddhist Monasteries of Nepal: A survey of the Baha
and Bahis of Kathmandu Valley
----- Legendary History of Kathmandu
Lopez, Don Jr. (edit) 1997: Atisha's Journey to Tibet

Malalasekera, G P (Editor) 1963 Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Ceylon

Pal, Pratapaditya, 1974: The Arts of Nepal

Paul, Williams, 1989: Mahayana Buddhism

Ram, Dr. Rajendra: History of Buddhism in Nepal

Regmi Dilli Raman: Inscription of Ancient Nepal

Sakya Hem Raj, 1969
--- Nepal Sanskritya Mulukha
(Main entrance of Nepalese culture)
--- Syambhu Maha Chaitya, 1098NS

Schlagintweit Emil Leipzig, London 1863 Buddhism in Tibet

Dr. Shrestha, Uma editor, Newa Vijnana
Journal of Newar Studies University of Calgary

Tod T Lewis 1993 Newar-Tibetan Trade and the Domestication of Simhalasarthabahu Avadan – source History of Religions, published by the University of Chicago Press: Vol. 33 No. 2, page 150

Vaidya, Karunakar 1986 Buddhist tradition and Culture of Kathmandu Valley

Vajracharya, Dhana Vajra, 1973 Lichhavikalin Abhilekh Kathmandu


Vajracharya, Gautam, 1987 Heritage of Kathmandu Valley

Vajracharya, Ratna B NS 1095/1974 AD (in Nepal Bhasha)
Gurumandalarachana va Prajnaparamita ya artha sahitam

Vajracharya, Ratna Kaji; Yen Deya Chaitya

Vittorio Roveda; Khmer Mythology by, p. 65

Wright, Daniel (1st edition 1877) 1995
Nepal-History of the Country & People Translated from Parvatiya, Calcutta: Sushil Gupta Ltd. pp. 201-208.
Yoshizaki Kasjumi 1979
-- Study of Saddharmamala
-- Kathmandu Valley as a Water Pot,
Kurokami Library, Kumamoto, Japan

Books related to Prajnaparamita
The Korean Buddhist Canon
(A descriptive Catalogue edited by R. Lanceaster, Berkley; 1979)

Adhyardhasatika Pranjaparamita Translated in many languages are in the collection of Libraries around the globe.

Astadasasahasrika Prajnaparamita 1927 18,000 lines 3 Volume edited by Bidyabinoda (Memoirs of the Archeological Survey of India No.32)

Astadasasahasrika Prajnaparamita 1082 NS Jogmuni Bajracharya

Astasaharika Prajnaparamita 1888 R. Mittras in the Bibliotheca Indicia Vol. 1

Dasasahasrika Prajnaparamita 1941 (translated from Tibetan) S Konow

Patashashrik Pranjaparamita- Hsuan Tsang describes about Satashriska Prajnaparamita with 100,000 lines (India visit 629-45)

Pancavimsatishasrika Pranjaparamita (25,000 lines) 1934; edited by N Dutta

Perfect Wisdom Heart Sutra 14 lines is the shortest form of Pranjaparamita Text

Perfection of Wisdom in 8,000 lines written in Tibetan script, translated by E Conze

Prajnaparamita Bhabanopadesh 1040 Ratnakarshanti Teacher of Atisa

Prajnaparamita Rdaya Sutra (Heart Sutra) edited by E Conze
Prajnaparamita Rdaya Sutra (Heart Sutra) edited by M Muller, Oxford 1912

Prajnaparamita Sutra: The Perfection of Wisdom (25,000 lines) Cambridge University
Preliminary note on Prajnaparamita Sutra) edited by M Muller, Oxford 1912

Prajnaparamita Manuscript E. Conze, Journal of Royal Asiatic Society Vol. 82 Issue 1-2 page 32-36: 2011

Satashasrika Prajnaparamita 100,000 verses translated from Pali in the Tibetan language during 9th century by Subrenbodieg, Tibetan Monk Ye-Se-sde and Jian Shree Mitra - disciple of Manjushree (Bibliotheca Indica 1902-1913)

The Composition of the Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita -- Edward Conze (Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies; 24 Dec. 2008 Vol. 14 Issue 2 page 251-262)

Hsuan Tsang describes about The Perfection of Wisdom with 100,000 lines during his visit to India and Nepal 659-663 AD

The Prajnaparamita Literature 1960 Edward Conze, Manton, The Hague

Vajracchedika Prajnaparamita 1881 edited by M Muller Oxford

Books related to Jataka Stories
1) The Jataka together with its commentary being tales of the Anterior births of Gautama Buddha by Viggo Fousball, T William Rhys Davidson; Turner London 1877-1897
2) Buddhist birth-stories; Jataka tales translated from Pali text Jatakatthavannana – The oldest Collection of Jataka Folklore by V. Fausböll's edited and translated into English by T.W. Rhys Davids 1880, London
3) The Jataka together with its commentary being tales of the Anterior births of Gautam 24Buddha by Viggo Fousball, T William Rhys Davidson; Turner London 1877-1897
4) A Jataka Tale from the Chinese Translation by Samuel Bell 1880, London, 1888.
5) The Jataka or the stories of the Buddha's former births in 6 Volumes by Professor Cowell, Edward Byles, (Valahassa Jataka) Pali text Society London 1895
6) Jātakamālā or Garland of Birth-Stories by Āryaśūra (4th Century) Translated by J. S. Speyer 1895
7) Jataka Tales by Ellen C Babbill; Ellsworth Young New York 1912
8) Ancient Tales of Wisdom - Jataka Tales H. T. Francis, M.A. and E. J. Thomas, M.A 1916
9) Buddhist Birth Stories (Jataka Tales) NY 1925: The commentary introduction entitled Nidan Katha, the story of the lineage by T William Rhys Davidson, Caroline A F R Davids
10) The Ocean of the Stream of Story by C H Tawney 1926 Translation of Katha Sarit Sagar by Somdev (11th Century)
11) Jataka: 6 Volume translation by Bhadanta Ananda Kausalyayana.
12) The Jataka Story in Japan 1999 Anita Khanna
13) The Illustrated Jataka & Other Stories of the Buddha by C.B. Varma
14) 365 Jataka Tales & other Stories
15) Jatakamala by J. S. Speyer
16) Dr. Naomi Appleton
a) The story of the Horse king and the Merchant Simhala in Buddhist text by Naomi Appleton- Buddhist studies Review 23/2 - 2006 page 187-201
b) Seduced by Sansara saved by a flying horse: A study of the Asvaraja and Simhala Stories (M.Phil. Thesis Cardiff University 2004)
c) Jataka Stories in Theravada Buddhism (D. Phil. Thesis Oxford University 2008)

1) Buddhist birth stories – Jatakatthavannana; 1880, London
Jataka tales translated from Pali text – The oldest collection of Jataka Folklore by V. Fausböll's edited and translated into English by T.W. Rhys Davids
2) A Jataka Tale from the Chinese Translation by Samuel Bell 1880
3) The Jataka together with its commentary being tales of The anterior births of Gautam
Buddha by Viggo Fousball, T. W. R. Davidson; Turner London 1877-1897
4) The Jataka, Vol. II: Book II translated from Pali by W. H. D. Rouse, 1895
Valahassa Jataka No. 196: Page- 90-92.
5) A Jataka-Tale from the Tibetan by H. Wenzel
(The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland pp. 503—511)
6) The Jataka: Stories of the Buddha's Former Births edited by E. B. Cowell, Volumes 1- 3:
First published in 1895-1907 under the title - THE Goblin City page 164-166
7) The Jataka or the stories of the Buddha's former births by Professor Cowell, Edward Byles,
in 6 Volumes (Valahassa Jataka) Pali text Society London 1895
8) Jataka Tales, 1912 Ellen C Babbill & Ellsworth Young New York
9) Ancient Tales of Wisdom - Jataka Tales by H. T. Francis, and E. J. Thomas, 1916
10) Buddhist Birth Stories (Jataka Tales) The commentary Introduction entitled Nidan Katha,
the story of the Lineage by T W R Davidson, Caroline A F R Davids; NY 1925
11) The Ocean of the Stream of Story C H Tawney
(Translation of Somdev's Katha Sarit Sagar)
12) Jatakamala by J. S. Speyer
13) Jataka (six volumes): translated by Bhadanta Ananda Kausalyayana
14) Ancient Tales of Wisdom - Jataka Tales H. T. Francis and E. J. Thomas, 1916
15) Jataka Tales by Ellen C Babbill
16) The Jataka Tales of Anterior Births of Gotama Buddha (Six vol.) Oxford
17) Jataka: The Illustrated Jataka & Other Stories of the Buddha by C.B.Varma
18) Stories of Buddha being selection from the Jataka
Translated and edited by Caroline A F Rhys Davids
19) The Jataka Story in Japan 1999; Anita Khanna
20) 365 Jataka Tales & other Stories
21) Valahassa Jataka by Francis & Thomas
22) Jataka: The Illustrated Jataka & Other Stories of the Buddha by C.B. Varma
23) The Flying White Horse: Transmission of the Valāhassa Jātaka Imagery from India to
Japan by Julia Meech-Pekarik, Artibus Asiae Publishers; Volume 43 no. 1-2 1981 (page 111- 128)
24) Kyoto: Hozokan, 1967 pp. 247-94,
A. K. Ramanujan: "Who Needs Folklore? The Relevance of Oral Traditions to South Asian Studies: South Asia Occasional Papers, University of Hawaii: Vol.1, 1990.
25) Speyer, J.A., ed. Avadanasataka, a Century of Edifying Tales Belonging to the Hinayana.
Bibliotheca Buddhica, Vol.3. St. Petersburg, 1902-1908. Indo-Iranian Reprints
26) Vaidya, P.L. ed. Jatakamala. Buddhist Sanskrit Texts, No.21. Darbhanga, Bihar
The Mithila Institute of Post-Graduate Studies and Research in Sanskrit Learning, 1959.
27) The Jātaka or Stories of the Buddha's Former Births, Translated from the Pāli by various
hands, Vol.I-VI+Index. Orig.publ. Pali Text Society Cambridge, 1895

Books related to Ajanta (For further study)

1) The Ajanta Caves: Ancient Paintings of Buddhist India Benoy K. Behl
2) Ajanta Caves: History and Mystery; P. C. Ramakrishna
3) Ajanta, S Vinekar MD, N. Brunswick; NJ Middlesex
4) Ajanta and Ellora: Cave Temples of Ancient India Pushpesh Pant
5) Ajanta Monumental Legancy by A P Jainkhedkar
6) Guide to the Ajanta Paintings
7) The Cave Temples of India 1895; James Fergusson and James Burgess

Books related to Simhala Sarthabaha

1) Gunakarandavyaha (mentioned in the 16th chapter) is the
Earliest religious text related to the story of Simhala Sarthabaha: Simhal Sarthabahaavadan.
2) अश्वराजवर्णनं प्रथमं प्रकरणम्।
3) आशा सफूधुकु
पञ्जिका ल्या ५२२८ (१) सिंह शार्थबाहा अवदान
पञ्जिका ल्या ५२३३ बुद्धअवदान सिंहशार्थबाहा
4) Bhiksu Sudarsan (ed.) Kathmandu: Cvasapasa, 1967
Simhasarthabaha wa Kabir Kumarya Bakham

5) Siegfried Lienhard did published a book in German Language with the detail of the story
as mentioned in the ancient Painting in the collection of the German Museum (Museum fur Indische Kunst, Berlin) entitled DIE ABENTEUER DES KAUFMANNS SIMHALA: 1985 (The adventure of the merchant Simhala).

6) Dr. Naomi Appleton: Seduced by Sansara saved by a flying Horse: A study of the Asvaraja
and Simhala Stories (M.Phil. Thesis Cardiff University 2004)

1. The Commentarial Introduction entitled Nidana Katha -The story of the linage, Translated from Pali text by Prof. V. Fausboll.
2. Leemans, Borro-Boudour, page 389, Leide, 1874.
3. Anderson, Catalogue of the Indian Museum, page 189)
4. Ancient Tales of Wisdom - Jataka Tales H. T. Francis, M.A. and E.
J. Thomas, M.A 1916 (The Goblin city page 164 – 167)
5. Khmer Mythology by Vittorio Roveda, p. 65.
6. Behl, Benoy K: The Ajanta Caves.
7. Jamkhedkar, Ajanta: Monumental Legacy.
8. The Jataka: Stories of the Buddha's Former Births edited by E.B. Cowell, 1895-1907. (The Goblin City Page 164/165)
9. The Flying White Horse: Transmission of the Valāhassa Jātaka Imagery from India to Japan by Julia Meech-Pekarik, Published by: Artibus Asiae Publishers Volume 43 n. 1-2 1981 page 111- 128)
10. The Goblin City, No. 196, page 164-166 published by Cambridge University Press in 1916 and The Illustrated Jataka & Other Stories of the Buddha, Valahassa Jataka-196 by C.B. Varma)
11. A Jataka-Tale from the Tibetan by H. Wenzel, 1888: 503 -511.
12. Our history: Myth upon myth, legend upon legend, Sunday Times, October 17, 2010, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
13. The Jataka, Vol. II: Book II. Translated from Pali. By W.H.D. Rouse, 1895: 90-92, No. 196 Valahassa Jataka.
14. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland (New Series) / Volume 20 / Issue 04 / October 1888, pp 503-511: A Jataka Tale from the Tibetan by Dr. H. Wenzel
15. The Jataka: Stories of the Buddha's Former Births edited by E. B. Cowell, volumes 1 - 3. First published in 1895- 1907 under the title - The Goblin City page 164/166)
16. The Cave Temples of India by James Fergusson and J. Burgess 1895 and Ajanta and Ellora: Cave Temples of Ancient India Pushpesh Pant.
17. Chicago Journal- History of Religion Vol. 33 no.2, 1993: 135-160
18. Columbia University: Ph.D. Dissertation, 1984.
19. Newar - Tibetan Trade and the Domestication of Simhala Sarthabahu Avadan - source History of Religions, Vol.33 No. 2, page 150, published by the University of Chicago Press 1993).
20. Nepalica 4 Sankt 49-53 Editors Prof. N. Gulschow & A. Micheals - Sankt. Augustine Wissen - schaflaverlage VGH, p 51-53, Heritage of Kathmandu Valley - proceedings of an International conference in Lubec June 1985 - Text in Nepali Script, Newari language).
21. Buddhism in Tibet by Schlagintweit Emil Leipzig, London 1863).
22a. Kyoto: Hozokan, 1967 pp. 247-94.
22b. A. K. Ramanujan, Who Needs Folklore? The Relevance of Oral Traditions to South Asian Studies, South Asia Occasional Papers University of Hawaii Vol.1, 1990.
23. Naomi Appleton: Buddhist Studies Review 23/2 – 2006: 187-201
The story of the Horse king and the Merchant Simhala in Buddhist text by Naomi Appleton
24. Pradhan, Bhuban Lal, 2047, Kathmandu Upatyeka ka Chirka Mirka in Nepali Language, Page 72.
25. Painting being displayed in Thambahi (Bhagwan Bahal) during the holy month Gunla. (August/September)
26. Die Abenteur des Kaufmanns Simhala Siegfried Lienhard Museum fur Indische Kunst Berlin 1985: 73, 82 (The adventure of the merchant Simhala Siegfried Lienhard Museum of Indian Art, Berlin 1985: 73, 82)
27. Daniel Wright 1877: 86, History of Nepal (Reprint 1990)
28. Buddhism in Practice 1995: 532-540, Donald S Lopez Jr. (ed.) Atisa's Journey to Sumatra by Hubert Declear.
29. Buddhism in Practice 1995: 532-540 Donald S Lopez Jr. (ed.) Atisa's Journey to Sumatra by Hubert Declear
30. Das, Sarad Chandra 1893: 51, 71, 75 (Reprint 1965), Indian Pandits in the land of Snow (Atisa in Thambahi).
31. Lord Atisha in Nepal: The Tham Bahil and the Five Stupa's Foundations according to the 'Bromston Itinerary" in Journal of the Nepal Research Centre, vol. X, pp. 27-54.
Articles related to Simhala Sarthabaha

A Japanese scroll painting belonging to the 13th century illustrating the Valahassa Jataka is in the collection of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, the tale is known as Kannon-kyo (Kannon Sutra) in Japanese literature. In the tale the name of the island is mentioned as Ceylon city of Cannibalistic demons. The name of the country of the five hundred merchant and the name of the leader are not mentioned. In this tale the five hundred merchant are called on as the disciples of Sakyamuni and the white flying horse as Bodhisattva. (The Flying White Horse: Transmission of the Valahassa Jataka Imagery from India to Japan by Julia Meech-Pekarik, Article Published in Artibus Asiae Publishers Volume 49 n. 1-2 - 1981, page 111- 128)
1) Wright, Daniel (1st edition 1877: 86, 87)
Nepal-History of the Country & People Translated from Parvatiya, Calcutta: 1995
During the regin of Sinhaketu from Simhakalpanagar, Simhala son of merchant Simhak went to Srilanka as a leader of a group of five hundred merchants.
2) A Jataka Tale from the Tibetan by H. Wenzel, 1888 (Page 503 - 511).

3) The Jataka: Vol. II: Book II, translated from Pali by
W. H. D. Rouse: Valahassa Jataka No. 196; 1895: 90-92.
4) The Jataka: Stories of the Buddha's Former Births edited
By E. B. Cowell, Volumes 1 - 3. First published in 1895-1907 under the title - The Goblin City page 164/166)
5) Jataka Tales by E. J. Thomas, 1916; Cambridge University
(No. 196, The Goblin City page 164-166)
6) Beal, the Romantic Legend of Sakya Buddha
7) Divyavadana, Cowell, Edward B. and Robert A. Neil
The Divyâvadâna: A Collection of Early Buddhist Legends, Sanskrit text in transcription, edited from the Nepalese manuscripts in Cambridge and Paris, with comparison of other manuscripts, with variant readings, appendices, notes on the text and an index of words and proper names. Reprint ed. Amsterdam: Oriental Press –Philo Press. 1970 (1st ed. Cambridge 1886).
8) Anderson, Catalogue of the Indian Museum, page 189

9) The Flying White Horse: Transmission of the
Valāhassa Jataka Imagery from India to Japan by Julia Meech- Pekarik, Article Published in Artibus Asiae Publishers Volume 49 n. 1-2 - 1981, page 111- 128)
10) The Sanskrit Buddhist Literature of Nepal by Rajendra Lal Mitra,
Calcutta 1982: 95-97 (Gunakarandavyuha - SIMHALA)

11) Professor Siegfried Lienhard did published an article
introducing a painting 11.44 meter long and 0.55 meter wide with 80 frames each with legend story text in Nepali script and the language Newari illustrating the Simhalavadan from the collection of The Museum of Indian Art, Berlin (Heritage of the Kathmandu Valley: Preceding of an International Conference in Lubeck, June 1985 edited by Niels Gutschow and Ayiel Michaels. Nepalica 4 Sankt, 1987 page 49-53)
12) Siegfried Lienhard: Avalokitesvara in the wick of the night Lamp. Indo Iranian Journal,
vol.36, 1993: 93 (Gunakarandavyuha belong to the late 16th Century).

13) Professor Siegfried Lienhard did published a book in German language with the detail of
the story as mentioned in the ancient Painting in the collection of the German Museum (Museum fur Indische Kunst, Berlin) entitled DIE ABENTEUER DES KAUFMANNS SIMHALA; published by Museum of Indian Art, Berlin 1985) (The adventure of the merchant Simhala).
Siegfried Lienhard 1985 Die Abenteuer des Kaufmanns Simahala Eine m nepalische Bilderrole dus der Sammlungen des Museums fur Indische Kunst Berlin. Veroffent lichungen des Museums fur Indische Kunst Berlin (7).
Siegfried Lienhard 1985 The Adventure of the Merchant Simhala – A Nepalese Role mode images of the collection of the Museum of Indian Art, Berlin. Publication of the Museum of Indian Art, Berlin (7).
(The Museum of East Asian Art and the Museum of Indian Art were merged in December 2006 and now operate under a new joint name, the Museum of Asian Art.
14) Bhuvan Lal Pradhan Thambahil, Madhuparka; Year 24 Issue 2, 2048 V.S.
(Kathamandu Upatyakaakaa kehi Sanskritik Chhirkaa Mirka page 68-90)

15) Schlingloff, Dieter, 1989: Studies in Ajanta Paintings
New Delhi (Page 52-53, Story of Simhala)
16) Professor Todd Lewis also published a paper on the Localization of Simhalasarthabahu
Avadana – (Tibet - Trade and Domestication of Simhala Sarthbaha Avadan)
Chicago Journal, History of Religion volume 33 no.2, November 1993, page 135 - 160
17) In Popular Buddhist Texts from Nepal: Narratives and Rituals in a Newar Merchant
Community (Columbia University: Ph.D. Dissertation, 1984), Todd T. Lewis mentions the name of the leader of the group of the merchant leading to Lhasa as Simhalasarthabahu, son of the Merchant Simhaka from the town of Simhakalpa in Jambudvipa.

18) Lopez Jr., "The Tale of Simhala the Caravan Leader," in Donald S. Lopez Jr., Ed.
Buddhism in Practice. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995: 150–69.
19) Dr. Naomi Appleton:
a) The story of the Horse king and the Merchant Simhala in Simhala in Buddhist text
(Buddhist studies Review 23/2 – 2006: 187-201)
b) Jataka Stories in Theravada Buddhism
(D. Phil. Thesis Oxford University 2008)

20) Dr. Michael Hutt, Professor of Nepali and Himalayan
Studies at SOAS (the School of Oriental and African Studies) in London published an article story of Simhalasarthabahu (1997:9) (European Bulletin of Himalayan Research Issues 20 -24 Sudasien Institute 2001 p 243)

21) Vaidya Dehejia 1991, Narrative Mode in Ajanta Cave no
17: A Preliminary study by Vaidya Dehejia South Asian Study Vol. 7 1991 "The story of Simhala is also mentioned in the Ajanta Cave no 17 that has 29 segments of paintings in the 45 foot span of the wall"

22) Vaidya, Karunakar 1986 Buddhist tradition and Culture of Kathmandu Valley

23) Vittorio Roveda; Khmer Mythology by, p. 65






Latest News!
Ven. Tsering, a Kopan monk who has been tirelessly working on this project, has now completed the first volume of the Prajnaparamita and is 3/4 of the way finishing the second volume, of the Prajnaparamita! Ven. Tsering is writing out the 100,000 verses of the Prajnaparamita (12 volumes) and has been working on this for the last 10 years. Lama Zopa Rinpoche is extremely pleased with the quality and dedication of his work. Writing the Prajnaparamita and Sanghata Sutra is a project of FPMT (Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition Inc. USA).
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