Postwar Homophobia and Lesbian Pulp Fiction

Postwar Homophobia and Lesbian Pulp Fiction: The struggle between freedom and fear

Paulina Zygmuntowicz

Academic Writing II Doctor Korten May, 2013

“No matter how embarrassed and ashamed I felt when I went to the cash register to buy the se books, it was absolutely necessary for me to have them. I needed them the way I needed food and shelter for survival.” -

Donna Allegra

The first half of the 20th century was a period of remarkable war victories achieved by the United States. However, these successes did not come without costs. World wars gave rise to many political, economic, and social crises, which caused many spending cuts. One of the facets of the American culture whose budget had to be cut off was literature. Expensive in production and, what follows, affordable only to a narrow wealthy part of the society, hardcover “glossies” no longer fulfilled their initial role. New, more effective ways of production had to be found. This is when pulp novels come into being. Named after the cheap wood on which they were printed, pulp books became a phenomenon in the 1930s, turning the attention of almost every individual to those fascinating short stories. “Exploitation fiction” with a sensational and engrossing plot, along with provocative covers created a genre which reflected social moods and behaviors of the 20 th century. In 1950, with a publication of the first lesbian pulp novel entitled “Women Barracks” by Tereska Torres came a breakthrough in the proliferation of homosexuality. Then the trend followed. Readily available, lesbian fiction allowed a unique view to alternative, earlier taboo sexualities. These new, mysterious stories were targeted not only at homosexuals but also male and female heterosexuals. Publishers, who took advantage of the novels’ popularity, began a massive production, in which, as many believed, the quantity prevailed over the quality. Back in the 1950s, lesbian pulps were considered by some people sloppy, far-fetched, and gaudy, hence were called “trashy” and “dirty books.”1 Yet, somehow, the literary market was overwhelmed with a plethora of lesbian stories. While the demand for those novels kept growing, a great fear of a new and unknown existed in postwar American society. The U.S. government promoted a different,

more traditional way of life, and labeled homosexuality as a serious problem that the U.S. faced. According to White House officials, the most desirable aim in life was achieving the “American Dream”- a house, a dog, two kids, and the picket fence- it was no time or place for any sexual revolutions.2 The homosexual situation of the USA indicated paradoxical approaches among societies. The popularity of lesbian pulp fiction lay in contrast to the homophobic postwar attitude of the U.S. citizens.

World War II was both the time of opportunity and threat to male and female homosexuals. Many aspects of war period favored the dissemination of homosexuality which will be elaborated on in the latter part of the essay. Simultaneously, “sexual psychopaths,” as they were called back then, had to hide their orientation; otherwise, they would face discrimination at every corner. During and just following World War II, homosexuality was considered a plague menacing American society and its traditional norms, and homophobia was prominent in every sphere of daily life. First, unjust persecutions were visible in the military. Homosexuals were diagnosed unstable hence unable to fulfill their duty as servicemen. Since the army needed every man able to fight, doctors ignored any noticeable symptoms of this “sexual disease” during requirement examinations. However, after passing the qualification tests their situation only got worse. If one’s homosexual practices disgusted comrades or supervisors, such a person would be prosecuted, and if found guilty discharged from service. In gentler cases, men were given detention and sent back to their unit. 3 More than nine thousand men and women were removed from service after receiving a “blue ticket” from their commanders, also known as a “blue discharge.”4 Homosexual veterans were denied any benefits, usually assigned to other soldiers, and were omitted when distributing honorable discharges. Due to social pressure, homophiles were too ashamed to go back to their family towns; therefore, most settled in port cities, creating gay and lesbian communities.5 Moreover,

Joseph McCarthy’s ideas concerning communists and homosexuals were at their peak in the postwar America, since the end of the WWII is also the beginning of the Cold War against communist Soviet Union. “Lavender scare,” the term used to describe persecutions and fear of homosexuals in the 1950s, had its boom, and homosexuals were treated as the enemies of the country. As historian David K. Johnson states: The Lavender Scare helped fan the flames of the Red Scare. In popular discourse, communists and homosexuals were often conflated. Both groups were perceived as hidden subcultures with their own meeting places, literature, cultural codes, and bonds of loyalty. Both groups were thought to recruit to their ranks the psychologically weak or disturbed. And both groups were considered immoral and godless. Many people believed that the two groups were working together to undermine the government.6 Even President Dwight D. Eisenhower, influenced by McCarthyism, signed the Executive Order 10450 which allowed an investigation of federal officials to check whether they were involved in any “sexual perversions.” Homophobia reached fever pitch in 1950s and 60s[.] Gays and lesbians were at times not allowed to purchase alcohol in bars.7 Furthermore, with the end of the World War II, traditional family and gender roles were strongly emphasized. As Allyson Miller aptly stated: “[…] when the United States dropped the first atomic bomb the nuclear family was born.” 8 Women were expected to abandon their jobs, run a household, raise

kids, and help their husbands, who came back from war. Single women, to say nothing of lesbians, were frowned upon by the more conservative part of the society. Many homosexuals whose identity was never discovered tried to fit into the “normative” society to avoid discrimination.9 Homophobia was omnipresent in the American culture; however, first sparks of sexual awareness and first thoughts of sexual equality emerged in the midst of postwar years.

Despite the prevalent homophobic attitudes of society as a whole, there was a concurrent and contradictory trend which witnessed an increase in the popularity of lesbian novels. Uniting homophiles from all corners of the United States, lesbian pulp fiction contributed also to familiarizing heterosexuals with the described community from its inside, providing readers with an emotional catharsis. Lesbian pulps pose as one of the first steps of the promulgation of homosexuality and a slow acceptance of lesbians in postwar American society. However, lesbians did not decide to come out in a homophobic society without a reason. World War II gave them a chance to find others like them, and turned straight people into homosexuals. As men went to war, women assumed positions normally associated with men. They became more involved in the economic situation of the U.S., and were encouraged to leave behind their domestic responsibilities. Without husbands, many women found consolation in the arms of other women. Moreover, females were welcomed in the military, so as to let men fight overseas. During World War II, about forty thousand women joined armed forces.10 Ironically, as the army was hostile towards homosexuality, the military created favorable conditions for its development. Women and men were strictly separated, and most got involved in same-sex-relationships. Due to this factor, many lesbian pulps’ plots were set in armed forces. To get to the essence of this work, namely determining that popularity of lesbian pulps contradicted homophobia in America, it must be first proven that lesbian novels were, in fact, popular not only among lesbians. Yvonne Keller, a specialist in this field, divided these novels into two groups. “Pro-lesbian pulp,” contained less sex scenes and was readily read by other lesbians who sought more romantic and emotional relationships presented in books. Heterosexual females also bought these kinds of novels out of pure curiosity and to find their own sexual identity. The second type, suggested by Keller, is called "virile adventures,"

which “are the most popular, more sex-focused, homophobic, and heterosexual white maleoriented.”11 They served men’s “titillation,” and with their voyeuristic appeal were eagerly consumed by male society. However, just by looking at the cover of a book, one could not determine which one was meant for pure enjoyment; hence many straight men were accidentally mesmerized by the pro-lesbian novels.12 In other words, lesbian pulp fiction was meant for everyone, no matter the gender or the sexual orientation; therefore, they appeared on bestseller bookshelves for an extensive period of time. For instance, “Women Barracks,” the first published lesbian book, was targeted at no specific audience and yet managed to achieve a massive success among readers in all cultures. Two years later, Marijane Meaker, under the pseudonym "Vin Packer," published her novel entitled “Spring Fire” which turned out to be an even greater success, selling 1.4 million copies in just the first printing. 13 And these are just two novels out of thousands which found their way into American bookstores.

The 1950s and 1960s were important years marked by gender and sexual contradictions. On the one hand, the popularity of lesbian pulp novels along with new homophiles movements, such as The Mattachine Society, helped to develop a sense of identity, and lead to a slow rejection of sexual limitations. On the other hand, McCarthy and homophobes sowed fear in society. Furthermore, lesbian pulps awakened the curiosity of straight people, who secretly sympathized with heroines, while in open discourse homosexuality was still presented as a pathological problem. Moreover, what is most staggering, lesbian pulp novels were in themselves contradicting. Even though, readers purchased those stories to find romantic relationships or simply for a sexual arousal censorship demanded unhappy endings. Authors were required to suggest that homosexuality is unhealthy and always leads to tragedies. Protagonists eventually suffer from mental disorder, commit suicide, or recover and convert to heterosexuality.14 To say this in other

words, absurdly as it may seem, books which contributed to the birth of the era of sexual freedom were homophobic in their own nature. Homophobia was visible at the first glance, since even the titles, such us “Lesbian Gym, the story of a virgin who was seduced into the wrong kind of loving” by Peggy Swenson or “Satan was a Lesbian” by Fred Haley, indicated that homosexuality is pure evil. Censorship which gave strict guidelines on how the book’s plot should develop also helped to tie the homosexual communities together, as Ann Bannon, “Queen of Lesbian Pulp Fiction,” said in one of her interviews: One thing about this oppressive environment: it tightened the community – an injury to one was an injury to all – and it brought out a really wry humor. We did have fun and people were hilarious! The oppression really forced us to find the good things, the funny stuff, as a way to survive.15 Postwar American society is a society filled with paradoxes created by the government and society itself, in which homosexual anomaly is most visible, as proven above. Which side of the conflict has won? After sixty years, it is clearly evident that homophiles have achieved significant supremacy over a conservative part of society. But the battle is not yet over.

Good stuff Paulina!! Well done. And so proud of you! You use sources very effectively. You have strong arguments and they are supported by these sources. Good use of footnotes. Well written  Mark :5 Yvonne Keller, “AB/NORMAL LOOKING Voyeurism and surveillance in lesbian pulp novels and US Cold War culture,” Feminist Media Studies, Vol. 5, No. 2, 2005: 177, accessed on May 14, 2013, http://www.yorku.ca/rajagopa/documents/Keller05-novel-voyeurism.pdf. 2 Karren O’Connor and Larry J. Sabato, “American Government: continuity and change,” (np.: Addis on Wesley Longman, 2000), 4. 3 Paul Jackson, “One of the Boys: Homosexuality in the Military during World War II,” (np.: McGill-Queen's Press, 2004), 76-77. 4 Mark David Van Ells, “To Only Hear Thunder Again: America's World War II Veterans Come Home,” (np.: Lexington Books, 2001), 76. 5 Diana K. VanGoethem, "Understanding the Construction of Homophobia as a Social Problem in Postwar America," JCCC Honors Journal, Vol. 2, 2011: 4, accessed on May 14, 2013, http://scholarspace.jccc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1010&context=honors_journal. 1

An interview with David K. Johnson, author of “The Lavender Scare: The Cold War Persecution of Gays and Lesbians in the Federal Government,” accessed on May 16, 2013, http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/404811in.html. 7 VanGoethem, ”Homophobia in Postwar America,” 9. 8 Miller, “Postwar masculine identity in Ann Bannon’s I am a Woman,” 12. 9 VanGoethem, ”Homophobia in Postwar America,” 5. 10 Miller, “Postwar masculine identity in Ann Bannon’s I am a Woman,” 8. 11 Keller, “AB/NORMAL LOOKING,” 178. 12 Miller, “Postwar masculine identity in Ann Bannon’s I am a Woman,” 27. 13 Allyson Miller, “Postwar masculine identity in Ann Bannon’s I am a Woman,” University of Missouri System: 4, accessed on May 14, 2013, https://mospace.umsystem.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10355/6476/research.pdf?sequence=3. 14 Ibid, 28. 15 An Interview with lesbian pulp author Ann Bannon, accessed on May 14, 2013, http://blog.thequeerist.com/2010/02/interview-with-ann-bannon/. 6

Bibliography David Van Ells, David. To Only Hear Thunder Again: America's World War II Veterans Come Home. Np.: Lexington Books, 2001. Jackson, Paul. One of the Boys: Homosexuality in the Military during World War II. Np.: McGill-Queen’s Press, 2004. Keller, Yvonne. “AB/NORMAL LOOKING Voyeurism and surveillance in lesbian pulp novels and US Cold War culture.” Feminist Media Studies, 2005. http://www.yorku.ca/rajagopa/documents/Keller05-novel-voyeurism.pdf. Miller, Allyson. “Postwar masculine identity in Ann Bannon’s I am a Woman.” University of Missouri. https://mospace.umsystem.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10355/6476/research.pdf?sequence=3 O’Connor, Karren, and Larry J. Sabato. American Government: continuity and change. np: Addison Wesley Longman, 2000. The Queerist. “Interview with Ann Bannon.” accessed on May 14, 2013, http://blog.thequeerist.com/2010/02/interview-with-ann-bannon/. The University of Chicago Pres. “An interview with David K. Johnson.” accessed on May 16, 2013. http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/404811in.html. Van Goethem, Diana, K. “Understanding the Construction of Homophobia as a Social Problem in Postwar America.” JCCC Honors Journal, 2011.