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Quaternary International 190 (2008) 112–122
Pleistocene glacial relief of the central part of Mt. Prokletije (Albanian Alps) Milovan Milivojevic´, Ljubomir Menkovic´, Jelena C´alic´ Geographical Institute ‘‘Jovan Cvijic´’’, Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Belgrade, Serbia Available online 10 May 2008
Abstract The central and highest area of Mt. Prokletije (Albanian Alps) is situated in northern Albania and eastern Montenegro (at 421300 N). The highest peak is Maja e Jezerces (2694 m). Detailed geomorphological mapping was used to reconstruct the positions of former glaciers. The longest Ropojana glacier had a length of 12.5 km and surface of 20 km2; others include Valbona Glacier (9.5 km, 10.5 km2), Grbaja Glacier (5 km, 6.7 km2) and Bogic´evica Glacier (6 km, 6.9 km2). Three series of moraines can be distinguished: the lowest at an average altitude of 990 m (average ELA 1750 m), the middle series at 1350 m (ELA 1942 m), and the highest at 1900 m (ELA 2123 m). As no advanced dating methods have yet been used to provide a numerical chronological framework for these features, hypotheses are made based on the comparison with the advanced studies of other similar mountains in the Mediterranean region. The moraines of the first stage (lowest series) correspond to one of pre-LGM glaciations (Middle or even Early Wu¨rmian), the second stage moraines probably correspond to LGM, and the third stage could be attributed to Younger Dryas. The mapping included a number of inactive and active rock glaciers, as well as three small active glaciers (surface 5 ha and less), at 1980–2100 m altitude, in the area close to Maja e Jezerces. r 2008 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. Keywords: Mt. Prokletije (Albanian Alps); Pleistocene glaciation; Recent glaciation; ELA reconstruction
1. Introduction Mt. Prokletije (also known as the Albanian Alps or Bjeshke¨t e Nemuna) is situated in southeastern Europe, between the Dinaric Mountains and the Pindus Mountains, spreading across three countries: Albania, Serbia (Kosovo) and Montenegro. The highest part of Mt. Prokletije is situated in northern Albania, close to the border with Montenegro, where several peaks exceed the altitude of 2500 m a.s.l. The highest peak is Maja e Jezerces (2694 m). The study area is situated between 421250 N and 421370 N, and 191450 E and 201070 E. Geographically, Mt. Prokletije is among the least explored areas on the Balkan Peninsula. Apart from difficult accessibility, the most important factor responsible for the poor level of exploration is political instability. In the last two centuries, there were very few periods when all parts of the area were safe enough for fieldwork.
Corresponding author. Tel.: +381 658215762; fax: +381 112637597.
E-mail address:
[email protected] (J. C´alic´).
The aim of this study is to reconstruct the positions of late Pleistocene glaciers in the region of central Mt. Prokletije, and to distinguish different series of moraines, attributable to three glaciations. Suggested hypotheses on glacial chronology in the area will serve as an introduction to the future research and expected use of advanced dating techniques.
2. Regional setting 2.1. General geological and geomorphological characteristics The area of central Prokletije can be divided into two zones, approximately along the line Plav Lake–Maja Sapit peak (2149 m). To the west of this line, the terrain is mostly composed of limestones and dolomitic limestones of Mesozoic age (from Lower Triassic to Upper Cretaceous), with some occurrences of carbonate and sandstone flysch and quartz schists (Djokic´ et al., 1976). The area shown on Fig. 6 (rectangle A on Fig. 1) consists completely of
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2.2. Present-day glaciation in the study area
Fig. 1. Location of the study area. Rectangles A and B refer to Figs. 6 and 8, respectively.
limestone and dolomitic limestone with chert nodules. The area east of the line Plav Lake–Maja Sapit is geologically more complex. Palaeozoic phyllites and argillaceous schists are locally covered with Permian-Triassic red quartz conglomerates. Further to the east, phyllites are intercalated with marbles and crystalline limestones, while the area to the SW and NE from the peak Maja e Rops (2501 m) is composed of igneous, mainly granitoide rocks (cataclastic granite) (Antonijevic´ et al., 1969; Gjeologjia e Shqipe¨rise¨, 1970). A simplified view of lithology of this area is presented as Fig. 8. The relief is considerably vertically dissected, with elevation differences that reach almost 1800 m: Valbona village is situated at 920 m a.s.l, although the horizontal (orthogonal) distance to Maja e Jezerces, at 2694 m a.s.l, is only 3700 m. Palaeo-glacial landforms are dominant in the morphology of the area. Active geomorphological processes include frost heaving and the associated mass movements, as well as karst process and gully erosion. Frost heaving in the areas composed of limestones leads to extensive rockfall and formation of large screes. In eastern part of the study area, which is dominantly composed of phyllites with soil cover, frost action is manifested mainly through gelifluction. In late spring and summer months, during the intensive snowmelt, this area is subject to gully erosion, which washes large quantities of material towards the local erosional basins: Plav Lake and its outflow, the Lim River. Limestone terrain in the region of Maja e Jezerces, Mt. Bjelicˇ and Karanfili ridge hosts a typical glacio-karstic relief. Apart from karstic depressions modified by cirques, there are also post-glaciation dolines and limestone pavements with karren, as well as typical corrosion terraces, studied by Kunaver (1991). Particularly during late spring and summer, this area is characterised by deep circulation of karst groundwaters. Deep karstification is favoured by high hydraulic gradients, but intensive speleological explorations (which could potentially lead to obtaining certain palaeoclimatic information from speleothem) are still in progress.
In Mt. Prokletije cirques above 2000 m altitude, which are situated within ridges of more than 400 m of relative height, the snow usually remains until autumn. Only in very dry and warm years (e.g. 2007), does the snow melt during September, which allows direct observation of small glaciers. On September 15 2007, three glaciers with moraines and two rock glaciers were detected in the area from Maja e Jezerces to the small dividing ridge within the cirque Buni i Jezerces (see Figs. 2 and 3 for glacier features and Fig. 7 for position). The largest glacier is 410 m long (number 1 in Fig. 7), with an area of 5 ha (0.05 km2). Its frontal moraine lies at 1980 m, while the highest parts of the glacier are at 2100 m, below a scree slope. Inclination of the glacier surface is not uniform; it has a prominent 15 m high step in its upper part. Four glacial tables are present on the surface of the glacier, two of which are only in the beginning phase of formation. The average block dimensions are 1.8 m 1 m 0.6 m, and the height of the ice pedestal is 15–20 cm. Small glacier tables have sediment caps, brought by wind (Fig. 2). The frontal moraine of this glacier is 2.5 m high, made of limestone boulders and relatively fine-grained debris. The light colour of the material indicates that it is covered with snow during most of the year. In front of this moraine, there is another one, at the distance of 25 m, which is of darker colour and with less fine-grained material. It is considered that this darker moraine represents the maximum extent of this glacier during the Little Ice Age. This glacier is similar in dimensions and altitude to Debeli Namet glacier on Mt. Durmitor in Montenegro (Hughes, 2007). These glaciers are active despite their position below the theoretical present-day snow line (which is higher than the highest peaks in the area). Using the mean annual temperature of 7.2 1C in Kolasˇ in, Montenegro (situated at 945 m a.s.l.) and a lapse rate of 0.6 1C per 100 m, the mean annual temperature on the surface of the biggest Prokletije glacier (at 2040 m a.s.l.) would be +0.6 1C. Applying the same procedure with the starting point in Vermosh, Albania (6.7 1C, 1152 m a.s.l.; Palmentola et al., 1995), gives +1.4 1C mean annual temperature for the glacier surface. Obviously, these temperatures are too high considering the established rule that rock glaciers (and, subsequently, ice glaciers as well) form in the areas where the mean annual temperatures do not exceed 2 1C (Barsch, 1978; Hughes et al., 2006c). However, the activity of Prokletije glaciers can be attributed to particular microclimatic conditions within deep north-exposed cirques, whose surrounding walls are up to 500 m high. 3. Methods of study The basic method applied in this study is detailed geomorphological mapping of palaeo-glacial features, mostly cirques, moraines and roches moutonne´es, as well
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Fig. 3. Glacier tables fallen from the ice pedestals (the glacier is marked with no.2 on Fig. 7). September 15, 2007.
median-altitude variant of the altitude ratio method (Porter, 2001). According to the definitions of three phases of glacial landforms studies in the Mediterranean area (observation, mapping, and advanced dating), given by Hughes et al. (2006a), the studies of glaciations on Mt. Prokletije are presently in the second phase—detailed geomorphological mapping of glacial landforms and sediments.
4. Pleistocene glaciation of the study area 4.1. Former research of glaciation in the central part of Mt. Prokletije
Fig. 2. Glacier tables on the active glacier in the foothill of Maja e Jezerces (this glacier is marked with no. 1 on Fig. 7). September 15, 2007.
as mapping of recent glaciers and rock glaciers. The mapping was done using 1:25.000 topographical maps issued in the former Yugoslavia, contoured at 10 m. A handheld GPS receiver and an altimeter were used as well. Mapped positions of cirques and moraines enabled the reconstruction of former glaciers. Reconstructions of the equilibrium line altitudes (ELA) were done using the
Glacial traces in this mountainous area were first noticed and studied by Jovan Cvijic´ (1903, 1913), and later by Milojevic´ (1937), Menkovic´ (1994), and Menkovic´ et al. (2004). There is a considerable level of scientific disagreement regarding the reconstruction of former glacier lengths. One of the obvious examples of this discord is, on one hand, the report by Cvijic´ (1913) that the Decˇani glacier deposited its front moraine close to the settlement of Decˇani, at 630 m a.s.l, while on the other hand the research of Menkovic´ (1994) places the lowest front moraine of this glacier at 1600 m a.s.l. Regarding the highest parts of Prokletije, the Plav glacier, with an attributed length of 35 km, was considered the longest glacier on the Balkan Peninsula. The elevation of its end moraine was estimated to 900 m a.s.l, about 1 km downstream of Plav Lake (Cvijic´, 1913). Due to poor knowledge of the area where the glacier originated, its dimensions were considerably overestimated. This issue is explained in more detail below. Considerations on Wu¨rmian glaciation in Mt. Prokletije are presented in Palmentola et al. (1995), within a study of inactive rock glaciers.
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Fig. 4. Cirque Dober Dol on southern slopes of Mt. Bogic´evica.
4.2. Morphology of largest cirques in the central part of Mt. Prokletije The area around the highest peak of Mt. Prokletije, Maja e Jezerces (2694 m) hosts three great cirques: Buni i Jezerces, Buni i Gropavet, and Llugu i Zajave. Buni i Jezerces is the most complex cirque in the area. An Upper and Lower cirque can be distinguished. The Upper cirque is exposed to the northwest, and the average elevation of its bottom is 2150 m a.s.l. Longitudinal inclination is significant along all its length of 1700 m. The upper part of the cirque hosts one small active glacier and two active rock glaciers. In the lower part of the cirque, which sharply changes direction towards the northeast, there is a group of glacial lakes, Buni i Jezerces. The lakes are constantly being filled with great quantities of debris from numerous screes. The largest lake, Veliko Jezero, is also the highest one, at 1792 m a.s.l. From field observations and topographic map analysis, it can be concluded that the surface of the lake has been reduced by 50% during the Holocene, due to filling by screes. The lowest lake, closest to the outflow rim of the cirque, dried during summer 2007, which revealed several well-preserved roches moutonne´es (Fig. 5). The cirque Buni i Gropavet is exposed towards the west, with considerable longitudinal inclination in the upper part. Sediments and morphology in the lowest part of the cirque point to the existence of a great cirque lake, which ceased to exist during the Holocene. In the late summer, all snow patches melt completely. The cirque Llugu i Zajave is open towards the valley of Valbona. Due to such morphology, all the moraine material has been washed away from the cirque. The highest part hosts two small active glaciers. At the outflow rim of the cirque, there is a 400 m high escarpment. Dober Dol cirque (Fig. 4) is the largest cirque in the study area (4.5 km2), situated to the south of Mt. Bogic´evica. Its general aspect is towards the NW, but at the outflow rim the aspect turns SW at 901. The geological
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Fig. 5. Roches moutonne´es in a dry lake in the cirque Buni i Jezerces. September 15, 2007.
composition (phyllites and schists) resulted in high erosion rates, so all the moraines have been washed away from the outflow part of the cirque and from the valley downstream. Along the upper part of the cirque, several smaller cirques were formed. These cirques are of much smaller dimensions, but their moraines (two series) have been relatively well preserved. The morphology of the valley Llumi i Gashit, and comparison with altitudes of frontal moraines of other valley glaciers, indicates that the Dober Dol glacier reached the altitude of 1320 m. Morphometric characteristics of the cirques are given in Table 1. 4.3. Reconstructions of Pleistocene glaciers 4.3.1. Ropojana glacier The glacier that started from Maja e Jezerces towards the north deepened the pre-glacial valleys and formed a giant cirque, Buni i Jezerces. Fusha e Runices was another glacier, originating from the cirque Buni i Gropavet, to the west from the peak Maja e Jezerces. The confluence of these two glaciers occurred near Zastan, at 1370 m a.s.l. The glacier extended through the Ropojana valley (Fig. 9) and is therefore named the Ropojana glacier. There were some smaller tributaries to the Ropojana glacier: from small hanging cirques on Mt. Karanfili on the northwestern side, and one glacier from Mt. Bjelicˇ on the southeastern side. Three series of moraines have been noted along the course of Ropojana glacier. The lowest is Vusanje moraine in the village of Vusanje in Montenegro, at 1150 m a.s.l. Behind this moraine, there was a lake in the terminal basin, which has completely disappeared during the Holocene. Moraines of the Ropojana glacier are much better preserved than the moraines of other glaciers in the area, thanks to favourable geological composition (limestones, no surface runoff) and relatively mild longitudinal inclination. The total length of Ropojana glacier, counting from the cirque Buni i Gropavet to the Vusanje moraine was about
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Table 1 Morphometric characteristics of cirques in the central part of Mt. Prokletije (numbers in the first column correspond to those marked on Figs. 6 and 8) Cirque
Orientation
Width (m)
Length (m)
Minimum altitude of bottom (m a.s.l.)
Maximum altitude of bottom (m a.s.l.)
Buni Jezerces (upper) Buni i Jezerces (lower) Buni i Gropavet Llugu i Zajave 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Bogic´evica Dober dol 26 27 28 29 30 31
NW NE NW NE NE NE N NW N NW NW E SE SE SE NW NW E NW SE NE NW NW SE E E E NW NW N NE NW N NE N N NW
500 800 1400 1100 550 650 250 300 330 450 400 340 400 300 450 450 300 300 350 350 550 350 500 650 300 550 450 500 900 1800 2000 400 450 230 250 550 1100
1400 2000 2750 1300 950 1300 300 500 420 750 500 650 320 450 500 1050 400 350 550 450 1550 450 550 2000 400 500 700 450 1300 2000 3300 400 500 350 250 800 500
1980 1750 1760 1880 1520 1900 1950 1840 1600 1800 1700 1650 1700 1700 1900 2000 1900 2050 2050 2020 1970 1780 1700 1880 2200 2150 2100 2180 1980 1800 1800 2000 2080 2000 2050 2000 2080
2300 1900 2350 2350 1600 2250 2120 2200 1700 2000 1900 2000 1900 1900 2100 2200 2100 2150 2200 2200 2160 1840 1900 2300 2300 2320 2200 2300 2300 2150 2200 2120 2200 2100 2120 2100 2200
12.5 km. This was the longest Pleistocene glacier on Mt. Prokletije, with a maximum area of 20 km2. Clastic material which is deposited as an alluvial fan about 1 km downstream from the Plav Lake (Fig. 1) has been considered a frontal moraine of the Ropojana glacier for almost a century. In the literature, this is known as the Plav glacier and was thought to be 35 km long (Cvijic´, 1913). Its longer tributary came from Vermosh valley in western Prokletije, while the shorter tributary was from Ropojana valley. The latest research has shown that the reconstruction of Plav glacier was based on erroneous estimations, due to lack of field evidence. Detailed field research of the area showed the mistakes in determination of origin of the clastic deposits in the vicinity of Plav. According to the size and roundness of particles, it is obvious that this material was accumulated by the rivers Komaracˇka Reka and Babinopoljska Reka, transported from Mt. Bogic´evica in eastern Prokletije. The geological composition also indicates that the material consisting of
Palaeozoic schists cannot be transported from the area of Maja Jezerces, simply because there is no such formation there. On the slopes of Mt. Bogic´evica, in the valley of Babinopoljska Reka, numerous gullies are incised in Palaeozoic schists. The large accumulation of clastic material, with more than 50 m of relative height, which was earlier considered to be the end moraine of Plav (Ropojana) glacier (Cvijic´, 1913), is an alluvial fan that originated from the area of Mt. Bogic´evica and deposited by the River Babinopoljska Reka. 4.3.2. Valbona glacier From the cirque Llugu i Zajave, a glacier extended through Valbona valley, down to the village of Valbona (Fig. 9). Sides of the glacial valley are almost vertical 2 km upstream from Valbona. This leads to the conclusion that the thickness of the glacier was at least 50 m, and that the upper rim of the vertical part can be regarded as a trimline. Vertical sides do not exist downstream from Valbona
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Fig. 6. Glacial features in the area of Maja e Jezerces. Rectangle C refers to Fig. 7. Numbers in cirques correspond to those in Table 1.
village, indicating that the moraine close to the village, at 900 m a.s.l., is the end moraine of the maximum advance of Valbona glacier. Most of the moraine has been eroded by the Valbona River. In the downstream direction, the valley floor altitude decreases abruptly to about 500 m a.s.l., so the existence of the glacier was not possible downstream from Valbona, regardless of favourable conditions in the area of ice accumulation. The Valbona glacier was nevertheless one of the longest glaciers of Mt. Prokletije, with a length of 9.5 km and surface 10.5 km2. It was fed also by a number of hanging cirques, the greatest of which was on Mt. Bjelicˇ. 4.3.3. Grbaja glacier Grbaja valley is parallel to the Ropojana valley, along the northwest side of Karanfili ridge. In the phase of maximum glaciation, the Grbaja glacier covered an area of about 6 km2 and was 5 km long. Apart from the two main cirques (Fig. 6), the glacier was fed by four lateral hanging cirques situated on Karanfili ridge (2200 m average altitude). The ridge on the left side of Grbaja valley is at much lower altitude (1850 m average), and no cirques were formed in it. Due to steep inclinations and related mass movements, in three out of four Karanfili cirques no moraines are preserved. The height difference between Karanfili cirques and the bottom of Grbaja valley is 600–850 m. The 35 m high front moraine of the maximum
extent of Grbaja glacier is situated at 1020 m elevation, close Sˇkala (Fig. 10(3)). 4.3.4. Bogic´evica glacier Mt. Bogic´evica is situated in the eastern part of the study area. Apart from the main Bogic´evica glacier, originating from Bogic´evica cirque and extending to Babino polje in the valley of Babinopoljska Reka, there were two more glaciers. One started from the great cirque Dober Dol and continued through the valley Llumi i Gashit (no end moraine is detected), and the other moved northeast, through the valley of Decˇanska Bistrica in Kosovo (Menkovic´, 1994). The last mentioned glacier is not included in this study. This area differs geologically to a considerable extent from the area around Maja e Jezerces. Rocks prone to fluvial erosion are dominant (phyllites, schists), which considerably influences the general morphology. Bogic´evica cirque is oriented northwards, and is characterised by intensive gelifluction. No traces of moraines are recognizable in the field. In three tributary cirques (numbers 26–28 on Fig. 8) recessional moraines have been preserved in the zone between 1950 and 2000 m. They consist of large quartz conglomerate blocks (average dimensions 9 m3). The maximum length of Bogic´evica glacier was 6 km. It deposited a 20 m high end moraine at the altitude of 1560 m (Fig. 10(4)).
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Fig. 7. Detailed geomorphological sketch of the cirque Buni i Jezerces.
5. Discussion 5.1. Pleistocene equilibrium line altitude (ELA) Three series of moraines can be distinguished in the study area. Median-altitude variant of the altitude ratio method (Porter, 2001) was used to determine the equilibrium line altitudes (ELA) for each of the defined moraine series. The lowest moraines are at 920 m a.s.l. and belong to the Valbona glacier. The matching moraines of Ropojana glacier are the Vusanje moraines (1050 m), those of the Grbaja glacier are the Sˇkala moraines (1020 m; marked as MG1 on Fig. 6 and shown in Fig. 10(3)), and the end moraines of Bogic´evica glacier at 1560 m (Fig. 10(4)). This series of moraines represent the dimensions of glaciers during the maximum glaciation. The average ELA for this glaciation is 1750 m. The second series of moraines, at Zastan (1350 m; Buni i Jezerces branch of Ropojana glacier), Fusha e Runices (1300 m) and in Dober Dol (1950 m) indicate an average ELA of 1942 m a.s.l. The third series of moraines is represented by recessional moraines accumulated at outflow areas of large cirques. Behind these moraines, there are large quantities of material left from cirque glaciers and rock glaciers. Elevations of recessional moraines are the
same (1800 m) in three great cirques: Buni i Jezerces, Buni i Gropavet and Buni Retit Bard on Mt. Bjelicˇ. The average ELA was at 2123 m a.s.l. An overview of moraine series altitudes and the corresponding equilibrium line altitudes is presented in Table 2. In each particular phase, the strongest glaciation took place in the zone of the peak Maja e Jezerces and the surrounding ridges Karanfili and Bjelicˇ. Another zone, on Mt. Bogic´evica, was considerably less glaciated, with ELAs that are about 200 m higher than in the Jezerces area. Bogic´evica is situated at lower altitudes. Furthermore, ridges around the cirques are of smaller relative height than in the Jezerces area. Another interesting reason for much higher ELAs on Mt. Bogic´evica is the smaller quantity of precipitation: it is situated 20 km to the east from the direction of wet air masses from the Adriatic Sea. In the area between the Adriatic and Maja e Jezerces there are no barriers for wet maritime air masses. 5.2. Correlation with neighbouring mountains Glaciations of Mt. Prokletije may be compared, in extent and chronology, with similar events on other mountains in the Mediterranean region. Mt. Prokletije is situated at almost the same latitude as the Appenines, mountains on Corsica, and Mt. Sˇara, but correlations can be made also
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Fig. 8. Glacial features in the area of Mt. Bogic´evica. Numbers in cirques correspond to those in Table 1.
Fig. 9. Glacial valleys in Mt. Prokletije: (1) Ropojana valley and (2) Valbona valley.
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Fig. 10. Some of the significant moraines of Mt. Prokletije: (1) moraine in the cirque Buni i Jezerces (marked as MB3 on Fig. 7; 3rd series; view towards SW); (2) moraine at Zastan, Ropojana valley (marked as MR2 on Fig. 6; 2nd series; view towards NW); (3) end moraine of the Grbaja glacier at the location Sˇkala (marked as MG1 on Fig. 6; 1st series; view towards SW); (4) front moraine of the Bogic´evica glacier (marked as MB1 on Fig. 8; 1st series; view towards NW). Table 2 Altitudes of glaciers (terminus and head) and corresponding ELAs in various glaciations (from maximum to minimum glacier extent; in metres above sea level) First glacial event
Second glacial event
Third glacial event
Glacier
A (t)
A (h)
ELA
A (t)
A (h)
ELA
A (t)
A (h)
ELA
Ropojana (B. i Jezerces) Ropojana (F. e Runices) Bjelicˇ NW Bjelicˇ SE Valbona Grbaja Bogic´evica Dober Dol Average ELA
1050 1050
2450 2450
1750 1750
1350 1300
2450 2450
1900 1875
1800 1800 1850 1950
2450 2450 2350 2400
2125 2125 2100 2175
920 1020 1560
2450 2350 2200
1685 1685 1880
1800 1970 2100
2350 2200 2250
2075 2085 2175 2123
1950 1750
with other locations in the area (Pindus Mountain in Greece, Velebit Mountain in Croatia, Retezat Mountain in Romania, the Pyrennees, etc; Fig. 11). Equilibrium line altitude during the maximum glacier extent on the Apennines was at the elevation of 1750 m (Giraudi and Frezzotti, 1997), which exactly corresponds to the ELA in Mt. Prokletije. Chronologically, these authors have placed this maximum glaciation in the Last Glacial Maximum (c. 22.000 14C BP). The similar results were obtained also by Jaurand (1998). In both works, the Younger Dryas is distinguished as another phase of glaciation, but with lesser extent. On the island of Corsica, the maximum extent of glaciers is attributed to Early Wu¨rmian, while the corresponding ELAs vary from 1400 to 1500 m in wet parts of the island, to 1750 m in the dryer NE and SW parts (Kuhlemann et al.,
2250
2050 1942
2005). The ELA in the dry parts of Corsica was the same as in Mt. Prokletije during the maximum glaciation. Although the latitude is almost the same, the comparison of this study area with the Pyrenees is difficult, because the Pyrenees have higher precipitations due to the influences of the Atlantic. However, the reported ELA (1600 m on northern side) from the eastern (Mediterranean) parts of the mountain range (Calvet, 2004) allows partial comparison with Mt. Prokletije. Extensive studies with advanced dating techniques (Uranium series) in the area of Pindus Mountain in Greece (Hughes et al., 2006b, c, 2007a, b) point to the existence of two significant pre-LGM glaciations. The strongest one predates c. 350,000 BP. The altitude of ELA during that glaciation (1675–1741 m) is generally in accordance with ELA during the most extensive glaciation on Mt. Prokletije (1750 m).
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Fig. 11. Positions of equilibrium line altitudes (ELA) on some of the mountains in the Mediterranean region, during maximum glaciers extent (regardless of numerical chronology).
Mt. Sˇara (2748 m) is situated almost at the same latitude as Mt. Prokletije, about 100 km further to the east. Preliminary observations point to lowest ELAs of 1900–2000 m (unpublished data, J. Kuhlemann). The results of studies of glaciation in Croatia (Marjanac and Marjanac, 2004) differ to a considerable extent from the other results in the Mediterranean area. The authors report very low altitudes of end moraines, very close to sea level. Therefore it is impossible, at this stage, to make any correlations with Mt. Prokletije, until more advanced research is done at both locations. In spite of being located at somewhat higher latitude, Mt. Retezat in the Southern Carpathians in Romania is one of the possible examples for correlation with Mt. Prokletije. Reuther et al. (2007) present a complex study using exposure dating and pedological investigations pointing to substantial pre-LGM glacial advances. 5.3. Hypotheses on the glacial chronology According to the cited references related to glaciations on a number of Mediterranean mountains, three glaciations in the central part of Mt. Prokletije can be hypothetically linked to some already defined glaciations that took place during the Late Pleistocene. Regarding the fact that the most complex numerical and relative dating of glacial events in the Mediterranean mountains was done on Pindus Mountain in Greece (Hughes et al., 2006b, c), and that the results showing the maximum glacier extent prior to the global LGM are obtained elsewhere ( Reuther et al., 2007), it is assumed that the maximum Prokletije glaciation took place in Early or Middle Pleistocene (MIS 6, or previously). Subsequently, the second series of Prokletije moraines can be attributed to the period of the Last Glacial Maximum (MIS 2), while the third glaciation probably took place during the Younger Dryas. Alternatively, accepting the results that point to maximum glaciations in the Mediterranean during LGM or slightly prior to this stage (Giraudi and Frezzotti, 1997; Palmentola et al., 1990), then the Prokletije maximum would also be placed
in the LGM, the second glacial event in Oldest or Older Dryas, and the most recent glacial event in the Younger Dryas. Younger Dryas cooling in the area of Mt. Prokletije was suggested also by Palmentola et al. (1995), within the study of inactive rock glaciers. The altitudes of the rock glaciers mainly correspond to the altitudes of final recessional moraines, cirque moraines and rock glaciers attributed to the youngest glaciation within the present paper. On the other hand, Hughes et al. (2003) linked the maximum development of rock glaciers on Mt. Tymphi in Greece with the period of the Last Glacial Maximum, instead of the Younger Dryas. 6. Conclusions Detailed geomorphological mapping of glacial landforms in the central area of Mt. Prokletije has lead to the definition of three series of moraines, which correspond to three different glacial events. Moreover, the mapping showed that the present-day glaciation is active as well, although with very limited extent: in the area in the vicinity of the peak Maja e Jezerces there are three small active glaciers that cover a total surface of about 11 ha. During the most extensive glacial event, the average ELA was at 1750 m, in the second event at 1942 m, and during the youngest glacial event it was positioned at 2123 m altitude. As numerical dating methods were not available for this study, some suggestions about the chronology of glaciation are given after comparison with other mountains of similar elevation throughout the Mediterranean. In that sense, the maximum glacial event of Mt. Prokletije could have taken place during early or middle Wu¨rmian, the second during the Last Glacial Maximum, and the third one in the Younger Dryas. The appropriate combination of numerical and relative dating techniques would evaluate the defined hypothesis. The broad limestone areas of Mt. Prokletije are favourable for U-series dating of calcite cements, as shown by Hughes et al. (2006b). The presence of quartz veins and rubble in
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some parts of central Prokletije could enable the application of surface exposure dating methods using cosmogenic nuclides ( Kelly et al., 2004). Moreover, detailed sedimentological and pedological analyses of glacial and fluvioglacial sediments are needed to supplement the numerical dating methods. Further research would in future bring Mt. Prokletije into the third, advanced phase in Hughes et al. (2006a) classification—understanding of geochronology using radiometric dating and detailed sedimentological analyses. Acknowledgments We are grateful to the reviewers for very helpful suggestions and comments which lead to the improvement of our paper. Special thanks to J. Kuhlemann and E. Jaurand for useful advice and help. Part of this work is included into the project no. 146011, financed by the Ministry of Science of The Republic of Serbia. References Antonijevic´, R., Pavic´, A., Karovic´, J., Menkovic´, L., 1969. Osnovna geolosˇ ka karta i tumacˇ za listove Pec´ i Kukes. Savezni geolosˇ ki zavod, Beograd. Barsch, D., 1978. Rock glaciers as indicators for discontinuous alpine permafrost: an example from the Swiss alps. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Permafrost. Vol. 1, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, pp. 349–352. Calvet, M., 2004. The Quaternary glaciation of the pyrenees. In: Ehlers, J., Gibbard, P.L. (Eds.), Quaternary Glaciations—Extent and Chronology. Part I: Europe. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 119–128. Cvijic´, J., 1903. Novi rezultati o glacijalnoj eposi Balkanskog poluostrva (New Results on the Glacial Epoch on the Balkan Peninsula; paper in Serbian). Glas SKAN, 65, Beograd. Cvijic´, J., 1913. Ledeno doba u Prokletijama i okolnim planinama (Ice Age in Prokletije and the Surrounding Mountains; paper in Serbian). Glas SKAN, 91, Beograd. Djokic´, V., Z˘ivaljevic´, M., Petrovic´, Z., 1976. Osnovna geolosˇ ka karta i tumacˇ za list Gusinje. Savezni geolosˇ ki zavod, Beograd. Giraudi, C., Frezzotti, M., 1997. Late Pleistocene glacial events in the central Apennines, Italy. Quaternary Research 48, 280–290. Gjeologjia e Shqipe¨rise¨, 1970. Gjeologjia e Shqipe¨rise¨; Carte geologique d l’Albanie, echelle 1:200.000, Tirane. Hughes, P.D., 2007. Recent behaviour of the Debeli Namet glacier, Durmitor, Montenegro. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 32, 1593–1602. Hughes, P.D., Woodward, J.C., Gibbard, P.L., 2003. Relict rock glaciers as indicators of Mediterranean palaeoclimate during the Last Glacial Maximum (Late Wu¨rmian) in northwest Greece. Journal of Quaternary Science 18, 431–440.
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