Estudios Iranios y Turanios
Homenaje a Éric Pirart en su 65º aniversario Editores
Alberto Cantera
Juanjo Ferrer-Losilla Número 2 Año 2015
Edita SOCIEDAD DE ESTUDIOS IRANIOS Y TURANIOS (SEIT) Girona
Estudios Iranios y Turanios Director: Alberto Cantera
Secretario: Juanjo Ferrer-Losilla Comité de redacción: Miguel Ángel Andrés-Toledo Agustí Alemany-Vilamajó Alberto Cantera José Cutillas-Ferrer Juanjo Ferrer-Losilla Götz König Jaime Martínez-Porro Éric Pirart
Depósito Legal: S-487-2015 ISSN: 2386-7833 Imprimida por: Printcolor Ctra. de Mollet a Sabadell Km. 4,3 Pol. Ind. Can Vinyals, Nave 18 08130 Santa Perpètua de Mogoda (Barcelona) © Queda prohibida la reproducción total o parcial de los contenidos de este Boletín sin permiso expreso de la Sociedad de Estudios Iranios y Turanios Envío de originales a: Alberto Cantera, Facultad de Filología, Pza. Anaya s/n, 37008 Salamanca (España). Correo-e:
[email protected] Juanjo Ferrer, Département des Sciences de l'Antiquité, Langues et religions du monde indo-iranien ancien, Bâtiment A1, Place du 20 Août 7, 4000 Liège (Belgique). Correo-e:
[email protected] José Cutillas, Dpto. de Filologías Integradas, Campus de Sant Vicent del Raspeig, 03080 Alacant (España). Correo-e:
[email protected]
PRÉFACE (JEAN KELLENS) ................................................................... 9 LISTA DE LAS PUBLICACIONES DE ÉRIC PIRART.................................... 11 Agustí ALEMANY El discurso de los khanes turcos en Menandro el Protector.............. 17 Miguel Ángel ANDRÉS-TOLEDO ..................................................................................................... 29 David B. BUYANER Zur semantischen und etymologischen Beurteilung des Pahlavi *dhru(C)-. Beiträge zur Erklärung der mittelpersischen Rechts- und Religionsterminologie. III................................................................... 43 Alberto CANTERA
......................... 71
Juanjo FERRER-LOSILLA Présent et imparfait en moyen-perse et parthe : histoire, évolution et convergence ..................................................................................... 99 Jean KELLENS Retour aux premiers chapitres du Yasna.......................................... 123 Götz KÖNIG Tradition. Die Pahlavi-Übehrsetzungen von Yt 13 in Dk 7.............. 131 Jaime MARTÍNEZ-PORRO The Indo-Iranian group *sr/a_a in the Avestan manuscripts ........... 151
Antonio PANAINO "El sueño de la razón produce monstru Av. xvafna............................................................... 163 Céline REDARD Philippe SWENNEN Indo-iranien Michiel DE VAAN Young Avestan
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Éric Pirart, La Malve (Mollet de Peralada), verano de 1988
El sueño de la razón produce monstruos Lights and Shadows of Av. xvafna- g
Antonio Panaino University of Bologna
ABSTRACT: The present article deals with the many implications connected with the representation of the oneiric dimension in the Iranian and Indo-Iranian framework, with particular regard for its appearance in the Old Avestan verse-line of Y.30.3a as well as in many other fitting Avestan and Pahlavi passages. KEYWORDS: Dreams, sleep, Avestan philology, Mazdean religion, primordial Twins,
In the framework1 of a remarkable study dedicated to the names of the gods in Greek and to the importance of their abstract and concrete meanings, Pierre Chantraine observed:2 indo-européen est que le mot participe de la chose signifiée : il est la Terre »,
. Les êtres divins qui agissent dans « la
He then remarked:3 qui endort. Lisons les vers du XIVe Nous voyons et entendons véritablement une personne divine : v. 231 : « elle rencontre Sommeil »; v. 270 : « elle dit et Sommeil a grand joie et lui dit en réponse ». Mais nous avons encore affaire à une divinité et à fois que Sommeil vient le visiter »; ou en B 2 : « doux Sommeil ne tenait pas (
These considerations result very stimulating also for the Iranian milieu, because the presence of a number of divinities denominated by means of abstract stems or names deriving by ritual concepts, tools or natural I want to thank for their kind and useful comments and remarks Prof. Andrea Piras (Bologna) and Dr. Götz König (Berlin). I must address a special expression of gratitude to Prof. Martin Schwartz (Berkeley), who dedicated to my article a number of relevant and useful comments, which I have mostly embedded (with explicit quotations, of course) in my present contribution. 2 CHANTRAINE (1953: 70). 3 CHANTRAINE (1953: 70-71). 1
Estudios Iranios y Turanios
phenomena, is well known. In particular, the relevant reflections concerning 4 suggest a revision of the usual s.5 I hope that the following discussion might be of interest for a good friend of mine, Prof. Eric Pirart, in whose honor the present article has been written and to whom it is dedicated as a sign of my appreciation and respect for his important contributions to the development of Avestan studies. xvafna-, m.,6 (Pahl. xwamn [hwmn]), cognate of Ved. 8 svápna-, m.,7 m., Lat. somnus,9 m., Lit. sãpnas,10 etc.11 The stem 12 was masculine in Indo-European and in many I-E. languages (* -no-/* -no-/*sup-no-),13 because it is a nomen agentis.14 In the whole Avestan corpus it is attested few times, among which ones just two occurrence are preserved in Old Avestan (Y.30,3 and 44,5), where its current
For the interests on Greek sources of new disciplines as ethno-psychoanalysis see DEVEREUX (2006). 5 This is only a preliminary study without any pretension of the problem of sleeping and dreaming in the Iranian world analysing from a wide and multidisciplinary perspective. An interesting dissertation concerning dreams in some Indo-European languages has been written by STUHRMANN (1982), while some other researches have been developed on various aspects concerning sleep and dream in many single cultural traditions. A larger approach could be the subject for a great international project. For this reason I have limited the bibliography to what I considered compellingly necessary for this article, avoiding a long presentation of primary and secondary sources, which, given the argument (and its psychoanalytical implications, not only concerning ethnological data, but also with strict regard to the ancient world) would have occupied many pages. 6 See BARTHOLOMAE (1904: 1863); cf. MAYRHOFER (1976: 561-562), (1996: 791-792). 7 GRASSMANN (1999: col. 1627). See also JAMISON (1982); PINAULT (2008: 225-228, passim). Cf. KÜMMEL (2000: 529-595). 8 This form is from *sup-no-; Frisk 1970, II: 970-971; CHANTRAINE (1968-1980 = 1999: 1159-1160); BEEKES ablaut grades may point to an older athematic n-stem. [...] The nouns were probably formed on the basis of the corresponding verbal root * -/*sup9 On the Latin form and its problems see DE VAAN (2008: 573-574); cf. ERNOUT/MEILLET (2001: 635-635); PINAULT (2008: 243-245). 10 SCHINDLER (1966: 69-70). 11 For a general detailed and critical conspectus see WODTKO/IRSLINGER/SCHNEIDER (2008: 675-680). 12 With regard to the MEILLET (1920) just noted 4
MEILLET (1982: 222-223), but see now the most important discussion by PINAULT (2014). 13 There is no need of stems like *sepno- or *sopno-; see SCHINDLER (1966, passim). 14 See again ERNOUT/MEILLET (2001: 635), with reference also to Lat. sopor nomen actionis; cf. MAYRHOFER (1996: 792); cf. WATKINS (1972: 557-560); PINAULT (2008: 244-245).
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spelling was xv -.15 We must observe, as shown by BENVENISTE,16 that in Indo-Iranian another simpler a-stem is attested: Ved. -, m.17 and v 18 Ir. *x - (which can be reconstructed thanks to N.-P. ); this alternative Iranian form is mostly attested among the South Iranian languages and dialects,19 while Parthian xwamr, to which also the rare Pahl. xumr can be connected (see also Yazdi xwarm, xarm),20 seems ultimately to derive again from Ir. *xvafna-.21 The Pahlavi form22 (< * < * xv -), v frequently homograph < Av. x -; cf. N.P. xway), seems to be surely later; according to TAFAZZOLI,23 it would have xvafna- was considered 24 as - and was an object of worship. 25 In (practically 26 Yt.13,104: x xv 27 dreams, evil apparitions, evil emotional28 trepidations and evil (seducing)This semantic value is confirmed also by Vedic sources (and such a nuance is current in other Indo-European languages),29 where nightmares were equally designed as svápnas.30 But there is no need to consider this word as strictly belonging to the demoniac lexicon, because according to Y.44,5 ( 31 xv or of both the states of sleeping and of wakefulness. KELLENS/PIRART (1990, II: 235). See BENVENISTE (1930). 17 Cf. also ° -, f. in anu . 8,97,3); SCARLATA (1999: 619-620). 18 The existence and the origin of Pahl. [hw'b] (cf. MACKENZIE 1971: 95) are controversial, but see TAFAZZOLI (1990: 52-53). 19 See BENVENISTE (1930: 76-77). 20 See BENVENISTE (1930: 77-78); TAFAZZOLI (1990: 52). 21 For a discussion of all the Modern Iranian stems related to xvafna- see again BENVENISTE (1930). 22 TAFAZZOLI (1990: 52-54) gives it only as 23 TAFAZZOLI (1990: 53-54). 24 On this problem see already NYBERG (1938: 108); cf. also TIMUS (2015: 188). 25 On this see now PINAULT (2008: 226-227). 26 See MALANDRA (1971: 91, 135). Cf. STUHRMANN (1982: 43); RUSSELL (1992: 161-162 = 2004: 491-492). 27 About Av. aga- and Ved. agha- sees already SCHWYZER (1919: 23, 27, passim). 28 On this passage and its terminology see SCHWARTZ (2000: 17-18, n. 3) and id. (2008: 98100). 29 See, e.g., Lat. somnium and somnus WALDE (1954, II: 557-558); cf. also BUCK (1949: 268-270, entries 4.61 [sleep] and 4.62 [dream]). The case is not isolated to this linguistic family; in the Semitic framework see ZGOLL (2006: 69-81, passim). 30 DONIGER (1984: 14-15 = 2005: 36, passim). 31 Cf. PANAINO (2007: 272, passim). 15 16
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Furthermore, according to Vr.7,3,32
xv ). Positive or neutral implications are connected with the use of xvafna- in Vd.18,49,33 in HN.1,11 and 13,34 although in HN.1,5,35 a single recitation of the A prayer corresponds to a hundred instances of sleeping ( xv ). Excessive sleep and sleepiness are felt as an impending risk; in fact, it can be a sin, as stated in the 17,6, when a student-priest fails to study because of laxity, listnessness or sleeping ( v iieiti).36 In Vd.13,48,37 (probably with an adjectival use of xvafna-, as suggested by BARTHOLOMAE)38 has very ambiguous results. Thus, we can assume that in spite of the Mazdean trend to develop a double lexicon, xvafna- simply remained a vox media, and it was used with positive, negative and neutral implications. In fact, as its Vedic cognate, svápna-, it corresponds both to the physical state or process, in which the dreaming activity takes place, and to the content of the dream itself, pleasant or dramatic.39 The attestations of the verb xvap-40 equally show the semantic41 neutrality of this root.42 WOLFF (1910: 115). WOLFF (1910: 422-423); MOAZAMI (2014: 416-417). 34 WESTERGAARD (1852-54: 295); DARMESTETER (1892, II: 650). 35 WESTERGAARD (1852-54: 294); DARMESTETER (1892, II: 649). 36 KOTWAL/KREYENBROEK (1992: 76-77). 37 WOLFF (1910: 403); cf. MOAZAMI (2014: 340-341). 38 Ibidem. 39 Cf. DONIGER (1984: 14 = 2005: 35). 40 BARTHOLOMAE (1904: 1862-1863); KELLENS (1984: 35, passim); id. (1995: 17-18); RIX (2001 [LIV]: 612-613); CHEUNG (2007: 145-147). See also STUHRMANN (1982); WERBA (1997: 422). 41 I agree with PINAULT (2014: 196-197) when he observes that in many Indo-European 32 33
event in which the dream is received during the sleep, not as a mental inner production. Frequently, it was felt as an event of supernatural origin, as a message or injunction. A special investigation should be dedicated to Semitic languages, where the situation is maybe different. 42 It is to be noted that there other roots connected with the idea of sleeping; one is that of Av. hah- (cf. CHEUNG 2007: 126-127) and Ved. sas-, Hitt. -, I.-E. *ses- (RIX 2001 [LIV]: 536-537); the latter is that of Skt. - (I.-E- *dreH1-, but attested with many variations, as *drem-, cf. Lat. dormio, etc.), which should have been present also in the Iranian Sprachgut, because Armenian nirh ni- (cf. Ved. -), as assumed by BENVENISTE (1967: 13-14); see also WERBA (1997: 296; RIX (2001 [LIV]: 126-127) and PINAULT (2008: 230-233, 236-239, passim), who suggests that the traditional semantic distinction between sesswepBARTON 1985), is not completely sufficient. It would be better to remark that the root sas- in Vedic (cf. WERBA 1997: 252) refers to the non-activity
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Vd.18,16,43 FrW.10,4244 or in the most important passage of Y.57,17.45 Another logical semantic nuance is that of Vd.18,46,46 or with auua° in H.1,11,47 and in N.34,4,48 and 49 35,3. In Vd.18,46, the situation is very interesting, because its concerns a male who, when asleep, can emit semen, thus confirming the liminary complexity of sleeping as a moment of uncontrolled risk.50 Still with auua° xvapVd. 51 4,45. Remarkable is the use of the causative stem (xvabdaiia-) of xvap- with the preverb ° again in Vd the one who, at dawn, tries to compel all of creation to sleep after the due time. during the night, while svap- (that presents much more derivatives) has wider and more complex implications. On the Armenian linguistic data see RUSSELL (1992 = 2004). Again with regard to the root dreH1-, I call attention to two pertinent articles by SCHWARTZ (1966 & 1992). In the first contribution, SCHWARTZ posited a PIE root which something not go on its proper course, be diverted -
(see
passages),
Man.
Parth.
-, draoman- (!) with
- = Syr. Khwar. ghâlathu l-ghûl, with a Perso, etc., further Vedic dhruti-, dhrut , -dhruFinally, I must mention also the root *gnauHregional, and which is attested in M.= m/ CHEUNG (2007: 119). Cf. also *saiH- (saiiCHEUNG (2007: 329). 43 WOLFF (1910: 419). Cf. now the discussion in TIMUS (2015: 199-200). 44 WESTERGAARD (1852-54: 300 [this passage should be considered with Vd.18,16]); DARMESTETER (1893: 12); PIRAS (2003: 299-300); see below. 45 See below. 46 WOLFF (1910: 422); cf. MOAZAMI (2014: 416-417); STUHRMANN (1982: 153). 47 WESTERGAARD (1852-54: 295); DARMESTETER (1892, II: 650). 48 KOTWAL/KREYENBROEK (2003: 150-151). 49 KOTWAL/KREYENBROEK (2003: 152-153). On these passages see also the discussion proposed by STUHRMANN (1982: 43-49), mostly based on old translations of the passages. 50 About nocturnal pollution in the framework of this and other ancient sources, see STUHRMANN could -l-m can mean 51
very interesting association. WOLFF (1910: 339); cf. MOAZAMI (2014: 116-117). On this passage see PANAINO (in the press).
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The passage is so relevant for the present discussion that we can analyse it in extenso: v
sacaite.52
abdaiieiti. xv
longthe whole living world asleep at the awakening of the daylights. Sleep (xvafsa)53
hands is seen as a direct result of a demoniac enterprise, as a criminal means against the normal cycle of life, as a sort of paralysis. On the contrary, under divine protection, man can sleep without risks. One must also note the presence of a rhetorical game played by the contemporary use of , loc.sg. of -, f.,54 55 fra° garHgar-), and v abdaiieiti. Furthermore, I want to emphasize that in Sanskrit the causative of the root svap- ( ) 56 Thus, the presence here of a causative, enforced by the preverb verbal form in the present text, and we may wonder if the passage does not The general conspectus of the textual data present us with a peculiar scenario: xvafna- was a divine positive creation since remotest times (the beginning of the creation), but its occurrence can be also used by demons to divert good persons from their duties (in particular those of the priests),57 and, -will-beness, or probably better, as suggested by M. Schwartz, 58 substantivization of a sigmatic future participle feminine of the root 52
FrW.10,42: v
v
-handed B
v
from the northern direction, from the northern di O Men! Sleep, O short-living beings! Sleep, O shortDUCHESNEGUILLEMIN (1936: 87-88, § 113; 119, § 148). See also n. 44. 53 v x afsa 2nd sg. of the imperative active of the inchoative stem xvafsa- of the root xvap-. In spite of the stem, no particular inchoative meaning can be detected, as already noted by BARTHOLOMAE (1904: 1863, n. 1 sub voce). Cf. KELLENS (1984: 159). 54 BARTHOLOMAE (1904: 977). 55 BARTHOLOMAE (1904: 511-512); KELLENS (1996: 19); RIX (2001 LIV: 245-246); CHEUNG (2007: 172-173). 56 WATKINS (1972: 559); JAMISON (1982: 11; 2007: 111-112); PINAULT (2008: 250-251). 57 On this subject see the recent discussion proposed by TIMUS (2015: 197-201). 58 Letter of June 6th 2015.
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-/bav-),59 becomes the active representation of a kind of sleepiness and sloth that produces evil consequences on human pious activities. Sleeping and dreaming are called by the same words, so that nightmares too concur to Vd.19,20: axv [...] ) Yt.10,7: [...] yazamaide [...] axv )62 are axvafna- (Pahl.tr. a)63 64 while also the interesting figure of ,65 who v covers and protects the liturgy, does not sleep at all, being ax afniia(Y.62,5).66 Furthermore, we must emphasize a very relevant passage referring v Y.57,17:67 afa68 60
]
61
-
[*
According to this Avestan stanza, the ontological diversification of the two Mainiius70 and their following cosmological activities pro 69
the Pahlavi version),71 becoming in his turn axvafnality, we are not completely sure that these two gods have been always sleepless72 or that this was their quality before the occurrence of the GRAY (1929: 202-203). BARTHOLOMAE (1888b: 547) compared her with Skt. NYBERG (1938: 108), she originally was a goddess of dream divination; see also RUSSELL (1992 [= 2004: 483]). 60 WOLFF (1910: 429); cf. MOAZAMI (2014: 438-439) and STUHRMANN (1982: 158). 61 See GERSHEVITCH (1967: 76-77). Cf. STUHRMANN (1982: 158). 62 Note that Av. THIEME (1978: 504); cf. also PIRAS (2010: 260-263). 63 Cf. MOAZAMI (2014: 553). 64 BARTHOLOMAE (1904: 299). 65 See KELLENS (2010: 23) has called due attention to this figure, noting that it is an allegorical representation of military protection or of the possession of women. 66 See REDARD/KELLENS (2013: 13-14); KELLENS (2010: 22-23). Cf. STUHRMANN (1982: 158); TIMUS (2015: 199-201). 67 KREYENBROEK (1985: 44-45); DEHGHAN (1982: 38); KELLENS (2011: 88). 68 This is a 3rd sg. perfect active of xvap-; cf. KELLENS (1984: 401-402, n. 13). Cf. KÜMMEL (2000: 627). 69 I follow KREYENBROEK -86, n. 9) with few differences. It is Y 59
). Cf. also TIMUS (2015: 200). About the interpretation of the stem mainiiu- see PANAINO (2012). 71 The image of a god sleeping badly is very peculiar, and seems to be a later elaboration. 72 It is true that normally gods are unsleeping in contrast with humans, who sleep, but we cannot avoid the suspect that other possibilities were at hand in the framework of Indo-Iranian and Indo-European mythology. Cf. RUSSELL (1992: 153 = 2004: 483, 70
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I am explicitly using an expression taken from the astrophysical lexicon ) that produced the manifestation of the two Mainiius and the production of the two antagonistic dimensions , but it is obvious that and Ham.v axvafna- confirms that supreme gods cannot be (no more?) conquered by sleep, and that their superiority should be recognized also thanks to this special quality of their own. But we have also noted that Hýpnos can conquer high gods like Zeus.73 Was this a Greek problem or can we maintain suspicions about something similar in other Indo-European cultures? Then, in this respect humanity, but as a fitting need for the framework of the (mixed) world; thus, not as a means perfect in itself, but as a tool necessary for life. In fact, in the same Y.44,5c) the succession between light ( ) and darkness ( ) was also presented as a correct manifestation of order;74 of course, should be taken in the limits of the human, earthly, compromised dimension, and not as an absolute datum, as an abstraction, because in the eternal divine dimension darkness do not exist. Thus, in spite of the objective ambiguous condition, its presence being not only dangerous, because potentially responsible for any eventual interruption or delay in the realization of a necessary action (ritual or profane),75 but also because human mind becomes substantially open to external intrusions (in reality we know that all these phenomena are self-produced by human mind and its unconscious, but the ancients did not know this)76 and without defence with respect even to the passim). A different problem concerns the cycle of Morpheus and his mythology, which should be discussed in the context of a wider analysis. 73 On the contrary, here I call attention to the fact that Zeus is the god, who generally sends MESSER (1918: 5, 6-8,49-51, passim); HUNDT (1935) and KESSEL (1978: 174-185, passim); LÉVY (1982); WALDE (2001: 19-72). According to the Mesopotamian tradition, many gods have the power to send dreams (see ZGOLL 2006: 288-294; OPPENHEIM 1956; BOTTÉRO 1982). 74 PANAINO (2007: 272-280). M. SCHWARTZ remarked (2007) the presence of a ring compositional relationship between Y.44,5, where the natural light and darkness are introduced, and the mention of 2 armies ( ) in conflict, i.e. the symbolic light and darkness = good and evil at Y.44. composition, Y.44.1-9 (concatenating via ), with all intervening stanzas concentrically connected by formal lexical means, addition of Y.44.10 seq. brought about a second, overall, ring composition, where thematic correlations could stand in place of lexical-formal correlations. The 2 armies = metaphysical light and darkness as principles serve the obligatory concatenation with Y the ring-composition see also SCHWARTZ (2002). 75 PINAULT (2008: 250-251). 76 On the scientific (neurological, etc.) debate concerning sleep and dream, see JOUVET (2000).
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irruption of nightmares and evil dreams, which constitute the best field of growth for the spiritually deceitful interference of the Ahremanic demons. In other words, we must observe that xvafna- was the objective frame in which the demons might develop their aggressive or seductive power against human mind.77 It should have been mainly for this reason that the highest Iranian Vd Yt.10,7), were considered axvafna-.78 But if Avestan xvafna- is not explicitly personified as a God (although he was divinized, being - and also the object of the verb yazamaide),79 his power is deep, and we must observe that in the Indo-European framework he can turn out to be a demon, as it happens in Homer, where Hýpnos is the brother of Thánatos,80 Theogonia (211-214), where he is the brother of Thánatos, son of Night, and brother of Chera and Moron, other two personifications of death.81 In the Roman world 82 the god Somnus is a son of Erebus (god of darkness) and Nox Thus, the frame result very ambiguous, if not negative. We may suspect that for its strong relation with these negative aspects, well stated in other mythologies, the dark side o tradition. The same ambiguous image is confirmed by Vedic sources; for instance, in AV.11,8,19-20,83 svápna- was clearly presented as a divine power, a god, together with a hoard of negative (but also positive) gifts that had entered human body (svápno vaí .84 It is to be emphasized that in the Mesopotamian traditions, sleeping and dreaming were not only a means of communication with the divine world as well as among many events interpreted as constituting an omen, but that the personification of dreaming was c demon or a god of the dreams. See LEIBOVICI (1969: 65-66, passim); SAPORETTI (1996). 78 In the á-svapnajGRAßMANN 1996: 160; 1627). 79 Vr.3,7: xv 77
80
CHANTRAINE (1999: 1159). It is to be underlined the fact that the closeness of sleeping
ambiguous dimension; this observation is particularly significant in a context like the Mazdean one, where dualistic trends were common and the antagonism between light and darkness assumed very deep proportions. 81 GUIDORIZZI (2013: 14-15). 82 WALDE (1954, II: 557-558). See also the preceding note. 83 Cf. WHITNEY leep, weariness, misery ( ), the deities named evils, old age, baldness, hoariness, entered the body afterwards (ánu -doing, wrong, truth, sacrifice, great glory, both strength, dominion, and (http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/etcs/ind/aind/ved/av/avs/avs.htm): Cf. 19a) (svápno vaí / (c) // 20a) / (c) //. 84 DONIGER (1976: 7-8 = 2002: 27-28). The positive gifts are mentioned in the following stanza.
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More negative is the description of sleep in the 1,97;85 in fact, according to this sources, the gods would have introduced a series of evils in human beings, and svápna- was one of these bad gifts. It would be pertinent to recall that in the . the new compound 86 is already attested; this is well documented also in the Atharvaveda, in passages like 7,100,1;87 there, in fact, we can find svápnya-, n.,88 89
together with -, and svápna-, all with clearly negative implications. The double or ambiguous aspect of dream appears more striking in our reflections when we consider90 that, as WATKINS remarked: Engl. dream, Old Norse draumr, Germ. Traum (Gmc. *draugma-) are related to the family of Germ. Trug, trügen and Avestan IE *dhreugh-. Just so Gk. ónar, óneiros and their lone certain cognate, Armenian húpar
DONIGER (1976: 91, 249-250 = 2002: 142, 354-355). GRAßMANN (1999: col. 619); MAYRHOFER (1976: 562). See also STUHRMANN (1982: 14, passim). 87 AV. 7,100,1: a) / c) //1//. WHITNEY from evil-dreaming, from bad-dreaming, from ill-success ( ). I make bráhman my STUHRMANN (1982: 13, 16, 57); PINAULT (2008: 246, 253). 88 GRAßMANN (1999: col. 1627). On the direct comparison between svápnya- and Lat. somnium (both < * -), see MAYRHOFER (1996: 792); DE VAAN (2008: 573-574) suggests that somnium r/n-stem *suep-r/n- . Cf. also STUHRMANN (1982 13-18, and passim). On the neutral stem see PINAULT (2008: 246). 89 See SCHINDLER (1966: 75-76); WATKINS (1972: 558); STUHRMANN (1982: 5). According to PINAULT swe/opno90 On this Germanic semantic family see also EHRENSPERGER (1931). KESSELS (1978: 186; 85 86
unclear, following POTTER (1952: 154), who sharply preferred a derivation from *dhrou-mo-s. See most recently also PINAULT (2008: 228, passim; 2014: 194, 196). Prof. draugma(cf. -= ce is Av. -, draoman- (!) with - (see passages), Man. Parth. rdywghâlat-hu l-ghûl, with a Perso, etc., further Vedic dhruti-, dhrut-, dhruSCHWARTZ (1966: 119). Again with regard to the root dhrew-, I must confer to two pertinent articles by SCHWARTZ (1966 and 1992). In the first contribution, he posited a PIE root which now SCHWARTZ himself would define as 90
article of the year 1992). WOLFF (1910: 419). Cf. now the discussion in TIMUS (2015: 199-200).
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A. Panaino, Lights and Shadows of Av. xvafnaacquired in post-
Then, we have the right of suspect that the power of Sleep was that of a whose control could escape from the same gods; this memento compels us to better consider the complexity of any event framed in an oneiric context: thus when we read Y.30.3a,91 one of the most important and controversial passages of the whole Old Avestan literature, we must be ready to face a number of problems, not only of grammatical and syntactic nature, but also of meaning: v
two twin-(instances of) sleeping/dreaming (xv
[...]
= nom.dual.m.) [or] /
In the framework of this discussion it must be considered that the syntax of Y.30,3a presents, among many others, a central difficulty, the one concerning the interpretation of xv in itself.92 In past time, it was usually taken as an instrumental as, for instance, by BARTHOLOMAE himself.93 The first to suggest that, in this context, xv should be an apposition of , was HUMBACH,94 who built his main argument starting with the observation: !), sondern vor 95 I must remark that in principle this objection is not sound, and I agree with STUHRMANN,96 when he gives some fitting examples referring to
91
For this passage and its interpretations, see PANAINO (2004: 122-127). Unfortunately, as was appropriately stressed by SCHWARTZ (2000: 10, n. 6), the Pahlavi translator did not realize that in Y.30,3a, a dream was involved. See the text (ed. according to MALANDRA/ICHAPORIA (2013: 32, 209-210): [ ] [ be guft heard the (manifestation of the) ipseity of both themselves [that is: they declared WEST
93
BARTHOLOMAE (1905: 13). Prof. Martin Schwartz kindly remarks (email of May 1st xv per Humbach, who apparently thinks each of the 2 mainiiui.e. SCHWARTZ (2015: 52) in his last translation of Y two twinned Spirits a better one and a bad one, opposite in mind, word, and deed were heard in a dream. Of these two, the beneficent one chose (decided) rightly, not the
94
HUMBACH (1957: 368; 1959: 84). HUMBACH (1957: 368). Cf. also SKJÆRVØ (2000: 66-
96
STUHRMANN (1982: 159-162).
92
95
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dreams in which the aural dimension97 was involved, stating that there is no compelling reason to exclude a priori such a faculty from an oneiric state. Furthermore, as SCHWARTZ noted:98 manyusight, since it is not a thing (cf. YAv. mainiiauua99 In any case, the problems are 100 not finished; in fact, the analysis of the passage cannot avoid the controversial interpretation of the reference to the Twins and their xv , 101 which was proposed by LENTZ. The German scholar, in fact, presumed that these twins should be Yima and his sister, while xv (taken as instrumental be explained as a direct allusion to their incest. Although the theme of the twinning is very strong and remarkably important in the Indo-Iranian context,102 this explanation has been prudently rejected by most of the scholarly community.103 I must observe that, in its turn, also INSLER 104 explanation of xv as locative sg. of *xv We cannot forget that the acoustic level was very important, and that the faculty of hearing is one of those, which are severely injured in the case of religious or political punishments inflicted in the Mazdean framework; see KELLENS (1990: 443). Cf. PINAULT (2008: 249-252). 98 SCHWARTZ (2000: 2). 99 Contrariwise, SKJÆRVØ 97
dimension is referred to, not the visual one. I must also recall that GERSHEVITCH (1964: 32; 1995: 17-19), in his turn, explained xv in Y.30,3, as *xva-fna- instead of xvaf-na- from */hwa-fnaphan101 LENTZ (1962: 132-133). 102 See now my discussion in PANAINO (2013). 103 HUMBACH, in his turn, in a later article (1974) found some suggestions from LENTZ theory, although he framed them in different grammatical interpretation of the passage 100
HUMBACH (1974: 200), in fact, proposed as alternative translation also the following SCHWARTZ
STUHRMANN (1982: 154-157). See now ...
-phraseological recasting of Y32.1-16 in Y30.1-11 (SCHWARTZ 2002: 55-56 with 61, Chart V). The name of the mythological person, between the two Primordial Mainiiu-s in view of their being a pair of counterparts, and perhaps even reflecting their origin from an ambiguous but single mainiiu- (see below). used at Y30.3a apparently with the idea that the Mainiiu-s, being mainiiauua-, i.e. amorphous in the dream, hence not seen but heard. Cf. mainiiu- as or 104 INSLER (1975: 32ere are two fundamental spirits, twins which are drowned -166; 330-332).
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shown to be implausible. KELLENS/PIRART Y.30.3a,107 simply remark that: 105
106
in their commentary to
-passif de sru présente trois constructions possibles (v.
que seules les deux premières conviendraient ici. Les deux traductions convient ni au verbe ni à son instr.) et la première seulement nous paraît
The situation, as is usually true for Old Avestan passages, is very intricate. -(instances of) v x = nom.dual.m.), according to one solution, or xv = instr.sg.m.), according to another. In reality, the syntactical patterns established by KELLENS/PIRART do not really exclude a third 108 In any case, from a logical point of view the different solutions do not change the substantial facts. If the Mainiius (a) have been heard as two twins-dreams, (2) if they have been distinguished thanks to a dream, and (3a) if this dream was only one or (3b) have appeared together, the economy of the narrative dimension remains the same. It is a mental event involving mental Wills or Forces (the Mainiius) that appear like dreams-visions and/or during an oneiric event. In any case, this twinning becomes manifest in a mental dimension, and this is true in both cases, whether the Mainiius were twin-dreams, or if they had been heard into a dream! On the other hand, all these interpretations give room to many difficult questions. himself? In general, the current interpretation considers Zoroaster as the subject, but, also in this case, there is no compelling evidence for this single and exclusive solution, and although there are some elements that might
See in particular STUHRMANN (1982: 158-159). KELLENS/PIRART (1991: 47). 107 KELLENS/PIRART (1988: 110.) translated this verse105 106
108
See also SCHWARTZ
See the most recent interpretation of the same passage proposed by SCHWARTZ (in the press): Now, the (two) Mainiiu-s at the beginning, which are twins ( ), were heard (
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support this conclusion,109 it is right to focus on the problem. The sentence has a universal force, and the actor of the verb sru- in the middle diathesis, but with passive force, is not clearly distinguishable. Does this sentence mean that it was Zoroaster personally, as singer and visionary-priest, to know these Mainiius as two twin-(instances of) sleeping/dreaming or in a moment of primordial time ( not decided to become) an *axv - god? Again: the knowledge of these two dreams happens by means of an act defined as sru-,110 ( ; ind.aor.3rd.pers.dual middle),111 which, as we have previously remarked, is not at all incompatible with dreams. Thus, we observe in this verse-line the direct conjunction of the aural dimension112 of knowledge with that of sleep and dream (i.e., potentially, the vision). In one case, we have to do with a sort of prophetic perception (the perceiving subject is supposed to be human), with a speaking-vision (in the course of a dream?), in which the two Mainiius present their own antagonist identities. In the second case, if the cosmological implications. In fact, it would signify that, in a primordial manah- was for a while not under his own full self-control?), acquired a complete knowledge (or liberated a full manifestation?) of the two diverging trends present in his own mainiiu-, now awakening as two subjects speaking and declaring their different aims and innermost ontologies. But this explanation results in patent contrast with the (presumable) supreme position of Ahura Y. 44,5)113 v and, as we have stressed, is presented as ax afna-. This would be possible only origin of a sort of cosmic splitting. Thus, this interpretation would be admissible at the condition that we suppose, in this passage, that xvafna- meant as in a waking dream. Anyway, a hypothetical explanation of the foundation myth concerning the two primordial twins as two forces enacted, generated or liberated, by means See in particular SCHWARTZ (2000), where some comparative data supporting Y.30, Y.45, Y.43, and, of course, Y.31, are discussed. 110 Cf. SCHWARTZ (2000: 16). 111 KELLENS/PIRART (1990, II: 319-320). 112 Note that also in . 2,28,10, a stanza contain nightmares, the sleeping subject is supposed to hear a friend speaking ( ; verbal root ah- [3rd.sg.perf.ind.A]) in order to scare him. Cf. again DONIGER (1984: 14-15 = 2005: 36); ESNOUL (1959: 214); PINAULT (2008: 251-252); JAMISON/BRERETON (2014, I: 442). 113 Cf. PIRAS (2003: 296-298). 109
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because, after a millennary sacrifice, he felt unsure about the final result of his action, and his doubt produced Ahreman, while his millennary sacrifice had generated Ohrmazd. I have recognized114 a similar scheme also in the myth of the origin of the devás and the ásuras, according to the , 11,1,6,6,6(during the day) generates the gods; contrariwise, when he downward breathes again, generates the Asuras, and, then, immediately after, the darkness appears, so that he soon realized that they were evil. Thus, it is clear that the creation of the antagonist negative forces was not a deliberate mistake pati, but an accident, an error or, in other words, an event out of the full control of the divinity, who was de facto responsible for its However, the pos own mainiius in two diverging directions, as a sort of liberation of two innermost drives, is not supported by other relevant elements, and remains in the limits of the working hypotheses. It is just a theoretical frame, which should be taken simply into consideration as an alternative theory.115 We know that sleep is one of human conditions in which, in spite of the pleasure it gives to any person, the mind can enter other dimensions, where space and time are no more bound to historical and physical limits. Visions and dreams have been interpreted in ancient societies in many ways, but it is certain that nightmares and incubi gave rise to a number of questions and had a certain impact on the production of unconscious phantasmatic material that we can reasonably suppose was embedded, adapted and transformed in the religious mythological elaboration. If xvafna- (and svápna-) meant both insightful frame for divine and/or demoniac revelations. I cannot state, as noted before, who was the mythological dreamer hidden behind Y.30,3 in the the dream was taken and presented as a prophetic revelation (the two Mainiius, thus, had become clearly distinguished and distinguishable in the eyes of the priest) or, less probably, as a cosmological event (so that the two Mainiius had sharply assumed their opposite identities in the mental eyes and ears of Ahura
PANAINO (2004: 91-94 with literature ), where the problem of the Iranian mysticism, considered not as lack of consciousness, but as an empowerment of individual insight, is discussed. 115 We must also consider that according to the later Mazdean cosmology Ahreman lays in a state of astonishment and paralysis ( ), closer to a nightmare. In that context, also Nota Bene: 114
messenger), evoke a strong oneiric dimension. See below.
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A third possibility, perhaps a little more cautious with respect with the two solutions previously discussed, would be one which supposes that, according to Y.30,3 the speaking voice of the narrator, priest and singer at the same moment (Zoroaster?), was just saying that he has heard the voices116 of the two mainiiualthough not properly into a real dream, i.e. with a sleeping subject. This would be an attempt of presenting a sort of mystical perception (again like in a waking-dream, but without falling asleep), as the result of the deepest insight, as the fruit of a third eye (and a superior ear), developed in force of the sacrificial power acquired by the initiate. Thus, it would be not a sleep as the one represented in a most famous etching by Francisco de Goya (1797), and entitled El sueño de la razón produce monstruos, but a divine insight opening the way to a transcendent vision of two twin-images, who would have spoken apparently as visions or the like in a dream/vision.117 In this case, the speaking person should be imagined not as one who heard while sleeping, but as one given with a superior consciousness, in a mental condition of empowerment, and not of lack118 of consciousness. Thus, I cannot follow WIDENGREN,119 who assumed that the twins of Y.30,3a were heard during a compelling elements,120 but the idea that this stanza contained a reference to an initiatory moment is still sound. Simply I am not convinced by the too frequent mention of trance-performances, because the Iranian doctrine of the speculative force of the ritual as a menas capable to open a liturgical path to the divine dimension, not as a mystic moment involving a loss of individual conscience. For this reason, we should postulate not a proper trance, but a superior vision of the unmixed divine dimension. In this respect, also 121 in the sense, but it seems to be closer to a sort of incubatio, in which the human wisdom of the prophet was increased and promoted to a perfect level. Mutatis mutandis Mainiius would have become sharply distinguishable thanks to an aural
The dreams where explicit orders are prescribed constitute a special category in the classification fixed by Arte particular importance in the framework of the incubatio; see KESSLERS (1978: 198-198). 117 HUMBACH/FAISS (2010: 81) understand the reference in Y on in STUHRMANN (1982: 159-162). 118 On the presence of this tradition in the Mazdean framework and some misinterpretations of it see PANAINO (2011). 119 WIDENGREN (1979: 355-356). 120 Against the presence of other conditions of trance in the ancient Iranian context, see PANAINO (2011 with additional bibliography ). 121 WIDENGREN (1979: 356-358). 116
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comprehension/revelation,122 where mental sight was less important than mental hearing. Later, in the , Zoroaster himself was transferred by Ohrmazd, but also obtained thanks to his own xrad, to be understood, according to DE MENASCE,123 We must actually consider that dreams (xwamn) can be a mean through which Ohrmazd directly communicates with human beings or transfers knowledge to them, as it happened with Zoroaster, who was given (for seven days and nights) the wisdom of omniscience in the form of a pleasant dream created by Ohrmazd (ZWY.3,4-14: [...] [...]).124 In this respect Y.30,3a anticipates a theological framework well developed in Pahlavi texts,125 where it is stated that basically Ohrmazd and Ahreman cannot be properly seen, because their forms are not completely visible, and normally they must be perceived through the spiritual senses that human beings can obtain.126 Only in certain circumstances and only for some persons, Ohrmazd and Ahreman can be recognized by the wisdom, which the creator provides. This higher insight into the other world ( )127, according to 128 4.22, was recognized in few priests honoured by the title of 129 Ohrmazd mowbed But the transformation of Sleep and Dream has a more intriguing history in the Mazdean tradition. In fact, the peculiar form we shortly mentioned at the beginning of this study appears again in a very important context as that of 4,22 ([...] [...] 130 ),131 132 where / in the form of a luminous, tall 122
According to DEVOTO
DE MENASCE (1968: 165); cf. HINTZE (2012: 44, 55, n. 4). See CERETI (1995: 82-84 [transliteration], 134 [transcription], 150-151 [translation]). 125 See the whole chapter 18 of the (JAAFARI-DEHAGHI 1998: 72-72); the same chapter is object of a detailed discussion by DE MENASCE (1968). 126 By means of rational 29,10 (GIGNOUX/TAFAZZOLI 1993: 96-97). 127 See ZAEHNER (1972: 8); GIGNOUX (1968: 413, n. 19). 128 Cf. ed. DRESDEN (1966: [322]); ed. MADAN (1911: 413). 129 See SKJÆRVØ (2012, passim afterlife, see PANAINO (2011a), with a long bibliographical conspectus of works and details). Cf. also SCHWARTZ (2007b). 130 The mss variants see PAKZAD (2005: 62 in n. 218 and 224). Cf. TIMUS (2015: 194-195). 131 PAKZAD fashioned that sleep in the form of a tall, fifteen-year123 124
132
produced a number of different interpretations of this passage, as already underlined by SCHAEDER (1925: 217-218, in note 1), and later emphasized by TAFAZZOLI (1990: 52-
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fifteen-years-old man in order to protect him from the arrival of the evil forces into the world and the tremendous decay of its beauty. This image of Sleep ( / ), as a virile beautiful young man, not only was already presented in the 1a, 16 (u/ / ),133 as a primordial creation of Ohrmazd, but it corresponds mazd to eh in order to attract and excite the libido of the demoness during the central events concerning the formulation of her fundamental desire to Ahreman after his awakening.134 For many reasons, supported also by some parallel Manichaean myths and other sources, we can assume, as already stated by ZAEHNER,135 that this image 136 corresponded to that of the divine mes We also know that dream was considered * )137 according to the 138 26,104. Thus, we can observe many interesting facts: 1) the (Pahl. the positive forces of sleep and the inspiring images of dreams. In this respect, the intrinsic dualism of the notion of sleep/dream was again well expressed in the Iranian framework, and it is not at all peculiar that the same youthful the context) for Time of Long Dominion ( [ ch. 3,2 [ ]) ch. 21a,1), as again noted by TAFAZZOLI.139 The temporal oneiric dimension is actually unpredictable; although this dimension is certainly not infinite, the dreams nevertheless remain nontemporal, like the unconscious dimen 53) and SHAKED (1987: 247-248). The problem has been treated again by TIMUS (2015: 187). 133 PAKZAD rest, because Ohrmazd fashioned that sleep in the form of a tall, fifteen-year-old beaming PAKZAD, no variant is registered in this passage. Contrariwise, TIMUS (2015: 194) gives it as a variant. 134 See the long analysis of the pertinent text, of the myth and the related discussion offered by PANAINO (2011b). 135 ZAEHNER (1972: 186-187, 189); Cf. PANAINO (2011b: 26-29, passim). 136 See again PANAINO (2011b). 137
noted that the same idea was present in the Hittite context and that it results very archaic; -/ BYRD (2011); PINAULT (2014: 196-197). 138 PAKZAD (2005: 311, n. 308). 139 TAFAZZOLI (1990: 53), with the reference to all the fitting textual passages. TAFAZZOLI here, but it must be deduced, and it is not expressly stated into the text.
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impulses and redirect human drives toward positive aims according to the will progress and favours the prolongation of a status of sloth; less clear is the felt as internal, thus connected with an inner breath, an image that can offer one link between wind and sleep. In any case, this symbolic triangle must receive further attention, although its presence also underscores the importance of the oneiric dimension in the Mazdean framework. Thus, I in a divine form, are sent only by Ohrmazd; although they can sometimes also be sent to demons, as they were to eh, in order to avoid catastrophic results, they are a gift for all the pious human beings who might develop techniques In the Pahlavi sources, as ZWY.3,4-14, another dream is sent by Ohrmazd Od 140 This is not the place for a new discussion of a so difficult and tantalizing subject as that of the most fitting value to be attributed to G FRISK,141 and, then, by van LIESHOUT),142 GARRIDO/VINAGRE LOBO shown again by BEEKES,147 146
HUNDT,143 KESSELS,144 CASEVITZ,145 ), as
long semantic journey. The two Mainiius of Y.33,3 evoke the twin image of the two Gates in Classic Mythology, that of Horn and that of Ivory, through which true or false dreams pass, mutatis mutandis, the duality recalling the different messages sent to human beings, the first that will be true and full of gifts, the latter that turns out to be illusory and mortal. This doctrine, if my reconstruction is sound, should have been a substantial matter of esoteric Cf. WATKINS (1972: 554); HUNDT (1935: 86-90, 105-109). FRISK (1951 = 1966: 361-365; 1970, II: 966). An opinion strongly different from that of FRISK was expressed by KESSELS (1978: 186-189). 142 LIESHOUT (1980: 141-143). 143 HUNDT (1935: 106). 144 KESSELS (1978: 179). 145 CASEVITZ (1982: 71-72). 146 GARRIDO/VINAGRE LOBO (2003: 75-76). 147 BEEKES (2010, II: 1532). 140 141
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), but also the evidence of a cosmic splitting, which, (in spite of the different scholarly opinions about the core of Zoroastrian cosmology), was thought to have its origins before the an involuntary fault of him, at least in his ears after a divarication of an undivided maniiu-.148 In the Pahlavi texts the situation becomes only apparently clear. Ohrmazd sends good dreams to the first mortal man, as well as to mythical creatures; also to demons, if necessary. Sleep/Good dreams and Sloth/Incubus are now direct antagonists, but the similarity with the wind reminds us again the inevitable ambiguity of this inner force, its unpredictable time and power, its mystery. It is perhaps for this reason that in spite of the statement contained into the of a resting sleep, the (IX,31,9)149 on the contrary states that ). Again, the visionary dimension of the first mortal was something in between, a sort of Zwischenheit, where good and evil could be alternatively changed. In fact, according to the ch. 19, 1,150 although sleep was created as a divine 151 being with blue-eyes etc. (as its standard description), the demons had corrupted it ( ).
148
maniiu- being either
two opposed Mainiius-s. See in particular SCHWARTZ (2008; 2015; plus the article in press in the Gedenkschrift für M. Mayrhofer [Wien]). 149 TAFAZZOLI (1900: 54, with reference to the edition of MADAN 1911: 837, line 15). Cf. WEST (1892: 254, as chapter 32,9); SANJANA (1922: 102-103; English translation p. 79); note that both scholars interpreted 150 PAKZAD (2005: 236). 151 On the possible compa RUSSELL (1992: 151-152 = 2004: 481-482).
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