oral communication Cultural Codes
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Jerry Talandis Jr. University of Toyama
[email protected]
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Rules that govern proper communication are culturally specific. For example, which is a better form of greeting, to bow or shake hands? In this workshop, we will investigate how to help Japanese students learn about and deal with three key differences between Japanese and English speaking styles in order to help them speak English more naturally. In addition, participants will be introduced to the basics of pragmatics, that area of linguistics that deals with meaning in context, or “the hidden rules of language.” Pragmatics will be defined in lay terms, and a case will be made for its inclusion within an oral communication curriculum for low-intermediate and above learners. Specific ideas on which aspects to focus upon and how to teach them will be provided. Participants will have an opportunity to experience and reflect on various activities that introduce, practice, and review progress in building pragmatic competency.
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Overview I. What are cultural codes? What is culture? A. Culture from a macro perspective: Hofsteed’s Cultural Dimensions Model B. Culture from a micro perspective: Polite Fictions II. What is “pragmatics?” A. The search for a lay-definition B. Aspects of language that pragmatics deals with C. Why bother with pragmatics? III. Introducing pragmatics to students A. Showing vs. telling B. The four parts of a conversation C. A student-generated definition of pragmatics IV. Principles worth teaching A. The three “Golden Rules” B. Conversation strategies V. Ideas for teaching & reviewing pragmatics VI. Resources
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References: American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (Nov. 17, 2012) Social language use.
http://www.asha.org/public/speech/development/pragmatics.htm Bardovi-Harlig, K. & Mehan-Taylor, R. (2009). Teaching pragmatics. English Teaching Forum 2003(41:3). Hofsteed, G. (2001). Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations. London: Sage Publications. Palmer, P. (1998). The Courage to Teach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, p. 100-102. Sakamoto, N. & Sakamoto, S. (2004). Polite Fictions in Collision: Why Japanese and Americans Seem Rude to Each Other. Tokyo: Kinseido. Talandis Jr., G. & Stout, M. (2014). Getting EFL students to speak: An action research approach. ELT Journal, doi: 10.1093/elt/ ccu037. First published online on August 7th, 2014.
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Resources: Breaux, G. (2011) Jazz English (1 & 2). Compass Publishing. Hensley, M. & Burns, B. (2011) By the Way. MacMillan Language House. Kenney, T. (2009) Nice Talking With You (1&2). CUP. Richmond, S. & Vannieu, B. (2009). Conversations in Class. Kyoto: Alma Publishing. Ronald, J., Rinnert, C., Fordyce, K. and Knight, T. Pragtivities. JALT PragSIG.
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September 2014
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Lesson 1: Getting started What kind of English will we learn? Directions: With your partner, read dialogs 1 and 2. Atsushi (A) and Bill (B) talk about playing sports Dialog 1: !
Dialog 2:
1. A
Do you play any sports?!
1. A! Hi, John! How’s it going?!
2. B
Yes, I play soccer. !
3. A
How long have you been
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2. B! Not bad, Kaoru, and you?! 3. A! I’m pretty good, thanks!!
playing?! 4. B
Since high school. !
5. A
Do you like soccer?!
4. B
Great. !
5. A! So, do you play any sports?! 6. B! Yes, I play soccer everyday after school. ! 7. A! Oh really? That’s great. How long have you been
6. B Yes.! 6. A
Do you play now? !
playing?! 8. B! Since junior high school. ! 9. A!
Really? I love soccer, too! I used to play a lot in
junior high school, but not any more.!
7. B No. ! 8. A Why not?! 9. B I’m too busy.! 10. A Why?!
10. B! Oh yeah? Why not?! 11. A! Well, I’m just too busy at my... ah... how do you
! say「アルバイト」in English?
12. B! Ah... let me think... Part-time job?! 13. A! Yes, that’s it- I’m too busy at my part-time job.!
11. B Because... (silence)
14. B! Oh, look at the time! I have to go. ! 15. A ! Yes, me too. Nice talking to you, John!. ! 16. B !Yeah! Good to see you, too. See you later!
Discuss: Which conversation is better, and why? 2
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1
Why is dialog 2 better?
1. A!
Hi, John! How’s it going?!
2. B!
Not bad, Kaoru, and you?!
3. A!
I’m pretty good, thanks!!
4. B
Great. !
5. A!
So, do you play any sports?!
6. B!
Yes, I play soccer everyday after school. !
7. A!
Oh really? That’s great. How long have you been
2
8. B!
Since junior high school. !
9. A!
Really? I love soccer, too! I used to play a lot in
Pragmatics These are the various patterns, styles, and rules of conversations. They vary from culture to culture. In this class you will learn about some big differences between English and Japanese speaking style. Pragmatics also consist of various strategies to help you communicate in a friendlier, more interactive way.
junior high school, but not any more.!
語用論
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playing?!
様々なパターン、スタイル、会話のルールがあ
10. B! Oh yeah? Why not?! 11. A!
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ります。これらは文化によって異なります。こ
Well, I’m just too busy at my ... ah... how do you
のクラスでは、英語と日本語の会話形式で大き く異なる点について学びます。それによって、
! say「アルバイト」in English?
より親しみやすくインタラクティブな方法でコ ミュニケーションを円滑にするための様々なコ
12. B! Um... let me think... Part-time job?!
ツを身につけることができます。
13. A! Yes, that’s it- I’m too busy at my part-time job.! 14. B! Oh, look at the time! I have to go. !
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15. A ! Yes, me too. Nice talking to you, John!. ! 16. B ! Yeah! Good to see you, too. See you later!
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Greetings/Closings If a conversation is like a painting, then the greeting and closing is like the frame. People don’t just start and stop talking to each other suddenly. They usually begin with a simple greeting and end with a closing. In this class, we will learn how to say “hello” and “good-bye” in different ways. Questions Each question has two basic forms: open and closed. Open questions begin with a Wh~ question word (What, Where, When, Why, Who, Which, How). They result in answers containing some information: A: What is your name? B: My name is Atsushi.
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Closed questions begin with an auxiliary verb (do, am, have). They result in Yes-No answers. For example: A: Is your name Atsushi? B: Yes, it is. Are you Taro? A: No, I’m not.
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Answers In conversations, there are long, medium, and short answers. In English, longer is usually better. Example: A: Do you have a nickname? B: X Yes. △ Yes, I do. ⃝ Yes, I do. Please call me (Yu).
会った時の挨拶／別れる時の挨拶! 会話を絵画に例えるなら、最初に会った時の挨拶と別れる時の挨拶はフ レームのようなものです。私たちは、何の前触れもなく突然話し出した り、話すのを止めたりしないものです。簡単な挨拶から始めて、別れの挨 拶で会話を止めるのがふつうでしょう。このクラスでは、「こんにちは」 と「さようなら」の意味を持ついろいろな表現を学びます。
疑問文! 質問文には、「疑問詞を使った疑問文」と「はい・いいえで答える疑問 文」の、２つの基本的な形があります。!
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「疑問詞を使った疑問文」はWh疑問詞(What, Where, When, Why, Who, Which, How)で始まります。これらを使うと、結果的に何らかの情報を含 んだ答えが返ってきます。例えば、! A：あなたの名前は何ですか？! B：あつしです。!
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「はい・いいえで答える疑問文」は(do, am, have)の助動詞で始まります。 これらを使うと、「はい／いいえ」の答えが返ってきます。例えば、! A：あなたの名前はあつしですか？! B：はい。あなたは太郎ですか？! A：いいえ、違います。
答え方! 会話では、長い答え方、中くらいの長さの答え方、短い答え方、といろい ろありますが、ふつう英語では長い答え方ほど良いとされています。例え ば、! A：あなたのニックネームはありますか？! B： × はい。! △ はい、あります。! Ο はい、あります。「ゆう」と呼んでください。
Three Golden Rules*
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Golden Rule 1: Avoid silences of more than a few seconds! 質問をされたときは、数秒以上だまらない。
Silence often occurs in the following situations. Use the expressions below to avoid it: 1. When you completely don’t understand what the speaker says, just say: (I’m sorry) I don’t understand. 2. When you need the speaker to repeat, just say: Pardon? 3. When you don’t understand a difficult word, just say: What does “⃝⃝” mean?
4. When you understand the question but don’t know how to answer, just say: How do you say “⃝⃝” in English?
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Golden Rule 2: Add 1 or 2 extra pieces of information to your answers
質問をされたら、聞かれていないことも1、2個付け加えて答える
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Add information by answering “implicit questions” (暗黙質問) 例：Have you ever been abroad? (外国に行った事がありますか？) Yes, + (where did you go? Why? When? Who did you go with? How long did you stay?) Yes, I went to Australia last summer with my friends. No, I haven’t + (Where would you like to go? What do you want to do? Who do you want to travel with?) No, but I want to go surfing in Australia someday.
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Golden Rule 3: It’s natural to sometimes talk about yourself
自然な会話になるように、質問をされていなくても自分自身のことを話す。
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A:
B: + A: + B: +
例：
A: I’m really tired today. B: Oh really? I’m tired, too. I went to bed late last night. A: Me, too. I went to be at 3am! B: Oh yeah? I went to bed around 3:30. Now I’m so sleepy!
*Richmond, S. & Vannieu, B. (2009). Conversations in Class. Kyoto: Alma Publishing.
Conversation Strategies 「会話のコツ」
ENGLISH VERSION
Conversation strategies are short sounds, words, or expressions that facilitate communication in various important ways. They help you show interest, listen better, and manage the flow of your conversations. In short, conversation strategies help you sound more natural, communicative, and friendly. Here is a list of strategies we will learn in this class: 様々な重要な方法でコミュニケーションを円滑にするために短い音、単語や表現を使うことが、会話のコツとしてあげられます。相手の話をよく聞いていて、話に関心 があることを示し、会話の流れをコントロールするのに役立ちます。つまり、あなたが会話をする上でより親しみやすい会話を導きます。このクラスでは、以下のよう な会話のコツを学びます。
Strategy Reacting 「反応する」(hanno suru) These expressions help you show interest in what your partner says. Use them after your partner speaks.
Examples Oh really? Oh yeah? I see.
Sounds fun*. Wow! Great! Cool. That’s awesome*. Oh no! That’s too bad.
I’m sorry to hear that.
Practice A: I just got a new iPhone! B: Wow! That’s great. My dog died. A: Oh no! That’s too bad.
*You can use almost any adjective
Back-channel feedback 「あいづちを打つ」 (aizuchi wo utsu) Use these sounds and words while your partner speaks to show you are listening.
Uh-huh. Mm-hm. Hm... I see.
A: What did you do this summer? B: I went to Okinawa with some friends. (A: uh-
huh) We relaxed on the beach (A: mm-hm) and did some sightseeing.
Getting time to think「考える時間を作る」 (kangaeru jikan wo tsukuru) Use these sounds and words to fill the silence before you give your answer.
Um... Ah... Hm...
Echo questions 問い返し疑問文
(toikaeshi gimon bun)
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(repeat key words with a rising intonation)
A: I got an A on the test. B: An A? Wow, that’s great. My grade was a C+. A: C+? Are you happy with that? B: Happy? No, not really.
Bouncing 「聞き返し」(kikikaeshi)
How about you? And you? What about you? (repeat question)
A: Where are you from? B: I’m from a small city in Nagano. How about you? Where are you from? A: I’m from Toga-mura, in Toyama Prefecture.
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Whereabouts? For example? Like what?
A: I’m from Tokyo. B: Oh yeah? Whereabouts in Tokyo? A: From Akabane, in the west part of town.
Changing the topic 「トピックを変更す」
(topikku wo henkou suru)
To change the subject, ... By the way, ... Speaking of ⃝⃝, ...
A: Do you play any instruments? B: Yes, I play the guitar. A: I see. Oh, before I forget, did you finish your homework for today? B: Yes, I did. How about you?
Well... Let me see... That’s a difficult question. That’s a good question.
Repeating part of what you hear with a rising intonation can help you show interest, show you are listening, or give you time to think.
After you answer a question, bounce it right back to your partner with one of these expressions.
Getting more details より詳しい情報を得る
(yori kuwashi jouhou wo eru) When someone gives you a short or vague answer, it’s natural to follow up with another question to find out more detailed information.
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It sounds strange when you jump suddenly to a totally different topic. To sound more natural, use one of these transition expressions. Agreeing 「同意する」 (doisuru) Use one of these expressions when you agree with your partner’s opinion. Remember that the form of the agreement changes if the opinion is a positive or negative statement. Disagreeing 「反対する」 (hantai suru) Use one of these expressions when you disagree with your partner’s opinion.
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That reminds me, ... Oh, before I forget, ...
A: What is your favorite movie? B: Hm. That’s a difficult question. Let me see... Ah, I think it’s Star Wars.
Me, too. / I do, too. (positive opinion) Me neither. / I don’t either. (negative opinion) I know what you mean.
A: I really love the new iPhone. B: Me, too! But I don’t like the pink one. A: Oh, me neither.
Really? I don’t agree. I think... I don’t think so. Well, in my opinion, ... I understand your point, but ... I have to disagree. I think...
A: Oh, isn’t that new pink iPhone cute? B: Hm... I don’t think so. In my opinion, the
gold one is best. A: Hm. I understand your point, but I don’t
agree. Pink is best!
Conversation Strategies 「会話のコツ」
日本語版
Conversation strategies are short sounds, words, or expressions that facilitate communication in various important ways. They help you show interest, listen better, and manage the flow of your conversations. In short, conversation strategies help you sound more natural, communicative, and friendly. Here is a list of strategies we will learn in this class: 様々な重要な方法でコミュニケーションを円滑にするために短い音、単語や表現を使うことが、会話のコツとしてあげられます。相手の話をよく聞いていて、話 に関心があることを示し、会話の流れをコントロールするのに役立ちます。つまり、あなたが会話をする上でより親しみやすい会話を導きます。このクラスでは、 以下のような会話のコツを学びます。
Strategy Reacting「反応する」 これらの表現は、相手の話に関心があることを示す のに役立ちます。相手が何か話した後に使ってみま しょう。
Examples Oh really? Oh yeah? I see.
Sounds fun*. Wow! Great! Cool. That’s awesome*. Oh no! That’s too bad.
I’m sorry to hear that.
Practice A: I just got a new iPhone! B: Wow! That’s great. My dog died. A: Oh no! That’s too bad.
*You can use almost any adjective
Back-channel feedback 「あいづちを打つ」 きちんと相手の話を聞いていることを示すために、 これらの音と単語であいづちを打ってみましょう。
Getting time to think「考える時間を作る」
あなたが答えるまでの沈黙をなくすために、これら の音と単語を使ってみましょう。
Uh-huh. Mm-hm. Hm... I see. Um... Ah... Hm...
A: What did you do this summer? B: I went to Okinawa with some friends.
(A: uh-huh) We relaxed on the beach (A: mm-hm) and did some sightseeing. Well... Let me see... That’s a difficult question. That’s a good question.
A: What is your favorite movie? B: Hm. That’s a difficult question. Let me see... Ah, I think it’s Star Wars.
Echo questions (shadowing) 問い返し疑問文「シャドウイング」 聞いたことや聞こえたことをそのまま語尾を上げて 問い返してみましょう。関心を持って聞いていると いうことを相手に示し、それによりあなた自身も考 える時間を得ることができます。
(repeat key words with a rising intonation)
A: I got an A on the test. B: An A? Wow, that’s great. My grade was a C+. A: C+? Are you happy with that? B: Happy? No, not really.
Bouncing 「聞き返し」 相手の質問に答えた後、これらの表現のどれか１ つを使って、相手に同じ質問をそのまま聞き返して みましょう。
How about you? And you? What about you? (repeat question)
A: Where are you from? B: I’m from a small city in Nagano. How about
you? Where are you from? A: I’m from Toga-mura, in Toyama Prefecture.
Getting more details「より詳しい情報を得る」
Whereabouts? For example? Like what?
A: I’m from Tokyo. B: Oh yeah? Whereabouts in Tokyo? A: From Akabane, in the west part of town.
To change the subject, ... By the way, ... Speaking of ⃝⃝, ...
A: Do you play any instruments? B: Yes, I play the guitar. A: I see. Oh, before I forget, did you finish your homework for today? B: Yes, I did. How about you?
あなたの質問に対し、相手の返答が短かったり。 あいまいだったりしたとき、より詳しい情報を聞 き出すために別の質問をしてみるのは自然なことで す。 Changing the topic「トピックを変更する」 会話の途中で、突然まったく違うトピックに移るの はやはり不自然です。これらの表現のうちの１つを 使えば、より自然にトピックを変更することができ ます。 Agreeing「同意する」 これらの表現のどれか１つを使って、相手の意見に 同意を示してみましょう。相手の意見が肯定文か否 定文かによって同意表現の形が変わるということは 覚えておいてください。 Disagreeing「反対する」 相手の意見に反対を示す時、これらの表現のどれ か１つを使ってみましょう。
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That reminds me, ... Oh, before I forget, ... Me, too. / I do, too. (positive opinion) Me neither. / I don’t either. (negative opinion) I know what you mean.
A: I really love the new iPhone. B: Me, too! But I don’t like the pink one. A: Oh, me neither.
Really? I don’t agree. I think... I don’t think so. Well, in my opinion, ... I understand your point, but ... I have to disagree. I think...
A: Oh, isn’t that new pink iPhone cute? B: Hm... I don’t think so. In my opinion, the gold one is best. A: Hm. I understand your point, but I don’t agree. Pink is best!
