New Physical Education (Penjas) Orientation in Kindergarten and Elementary School in Indonesia Susanti Sufyadi 1 Staff in Direktorat Pembinaan SD, Ditjen Dikdas, Ministry of Education and Culture Student of Educational Technology Doctoral Program of Jakarta State University E-mail:
[email protected] Abstract – The development of science and technology has brought some changes in education field including physical education (Penjas). Penjas is an important parts of education, it is reflected from its functions and goals and some research findings that have been reported so far. These findings has shown that motoric development of children, as the output of effective Penjas learning at school, has impacts on children cognitive aspect, affective, academic competences, as well as children learning potential and learning readiness . Currently, the teaching of physical education at Kindergarten (TK) and Elementary (SD) level in Indonesia still facing many problems led to ineffectiveness of Penjas learning process and outcomes at those two levels. One of the the main reasons the problems occured is the misconception in developing learning model as reference in conducting the learning process . This fact is due to the lack of competence of the teachers, the lack of media, infrastructures, and other supports such as special programs or activities related with Penjas learning process. A new orientation of physical education at TK and SD level need to be described as a model to overcome arisen problems. This orientation includes the development of learning model that stimulate the capability of fundamental motor skills of children at TK, as well as learning model that meets the development characteristic of SD learners. Besides thes two, another aspect that should be paid more attention in improving Penjas teachers competencies and performance at TK and SD level is teachers education and training program, this program should be conducted referring to teacher training model that has been developed base on need analysis, this model can be called characterized and experiential teacher training model. Key Words: physical education (Penjas) at TK and SD, Competence of TK and SD Penjas Teacher, The Development of Learning Model for Teaching Penjas at TK and SD, characterized and experiential teacher training model. I.
INTRODUCTION
Physical education (Penjas) has become an important part in education, as Syariffudin (2002:137) said that physical education has always had pedagogic goals, and education cannot be implemented completely without it. The significance it has on education could
be seen in its function, some professionals mentioned several functions of Penjas on education, as Drowatzky (1984) says that Penjas can support as well as improve the proper growth and development of learners. Wuest and Bacher (1995:6) also stated that Penjas is aimed to improve performance and human growing through physical activities. Other broad view about Penjas function comes from Crum (2003:103). he stated that Penjas is not merely about learning to move but also about learning move to achieve education. In its implementation, Penjas objectives include physical fitness development, motoric skills, cognitive and affective development. Instead, Penjas focuses on education domain (Wuest and Bucher, 1995: 35-41). A similar view states by Lumpkin (1998:20024), he explains that the goals of Penjas comprise cognitive, affective and psychomotoric aspects (physical fitness and basic motoric skill). Yet, Amarino (1980:69-70) suggests four purposes that Penjas projected to: physical, psychomotoric, cognitive, and affective domains. As discussed above, we know that Penjas has been an important part of education in all levels, and that in learning process, learners experience changing through action, this action is a result of manifestation between mind and muscle working system. In short, we may state that learning process is influenced by muscle activities (Willgoose, 1984). This view is in favour of Dewey’s quoted by Willgoose when he propose the term “learning by doing” to mean strengthening learning experience through physical activities. Penjas is taught by means of such physical work as motion, motion is the nature of life, generally, human being is stated to be healthy when they can do their activities well. Motor development is a dominant aspect of individual seen in physical, social, cognitive developments that connect and influence one another. To mention to these values, motion development becomes very important part due to it affects the development of other aspects. This view is also supported by explanation of several professionals such as, Victor S, etc. (2008). They suggest that physical activities prompt nerve nodes to be opened to increase thinking competence. Another explanation by Sperry, suggests that is we need to stimulate brain cells to improve well as early as we can, because if its to late, the interruption or delayed stimuli administration
causes brain to close earlier as brain growth has limited time. Referring to the explanation previously, stimuli to early childhood are those have features of learning by playing, which dominantly practiced by various physical activities in learning circumstances. Another supporting opinion on motor development in children is suggested by Piaget. Based on his findings, he categorized children behaviour into 4 stages of cognitive development: sensory-motoric, preoperational, operational concrete, and formal operational. He said that cognitive and motor developments mainly depend on intelligence constantly. Nowadays, the awareness on the influence of motor development on children development has grown, as proved by the inclusion of Penjas in every educational level, from preschool to university. The problems, then, especially emerges in Preschool and Elementary level, in fact, stimuli have been mistakenly given to learners. The mistaken stimuli administration given to children at these two levels has meaningful and great impacts to their development capability in the future or in the next age periode. As it explain based on the Pyramid of Skill Attainment and Theory modelled by Piaget, basically, children motor skill development at one age periode gives effect to the following period development. These phenomena, of course, should be the consent of all parties, not only in formal but also in informal education, because, good results can be gained by implementing integrative and comprehensive education on children. Another reason why new Penjas orientation in TK and SD level needs to be discribed is because of development in knowledge and techonology, the development of knowledge as a result in developmnet in other sciences related with children development, such as medicine, psychology, physiotherapy, etc, and the development in technology such as learning tools, or media, etc, these changing changes the society demand on Penjas outcomes. This paper will focus on new orientation of physical education (Penjas) at Kindergarten (TK) and Elementary level (SD) in Indonesia. These two levels show that the outputs of motor development process have effects on the subsequent level of study. Age range of early children discussed in this artcle is 4 to 6 years, or children in Early Preschool Level (Formal PAUD (TK)), and 7 to 12 years for Elementary School (SD). Based on the background mentioned previously, this paper will discuss: 1. How does physical education (Penjas) curently implemented in TK and SD level Indonesia? 2. What factors effected the demand for new orientation on physical education (Penjas) especially TK and SD level?
3. What are the concepts of new orientation of physical education (Penjas) at TK and SD level in Indonesia? This paper, generally, is intended to describe practice of physical education (Penjas) at TK and SD level in Indonesia and specially to explain factors that influence the new orientation of physical education (Penjas) at TK and SD levels, in addition, it is also projected to describe new concept approved in physical education (Penjas). II. DISCUSSION A. Theory of Motor Development Historically, theory of childhood development has changed and caused improvement in approach to maximize motoric development and functional skills of children. Each concept plays its own role in structural and functional change of individual as well as environmental effect. Thelen et. al. (1987) summarize the principles of motor theory into: (1) Neural Maturation, (2) Cognitive, and (3) dynamic system. This theoretical change has played its roles – it changes into new science presenting new orientation and affects presumption, thinking, and comprehension on motoric development in children. The description of these concepts is delivered below: 1. The Theory of Neural Maturation This theory was introduced by Gesell (1928a,b, 1945: Gesel et al., 1934, 1940, 1975 in Campbell, 1995). It views that behaviour is “intrinsic feature of organism depending on maturation stage to anticipating and supporting, but basically could be replaced by environment” (Thelen et al., 1987, p.40). This notion suggests that functional behaviour represents nerve system maturation level, which in fact behaviour becomes more complex on the base of maturation of activities of nerve system to the more advanced level. This means that it depends on assumption of maturation level seen from neural control structures. Motoric development is agreeable genetically to individual growth or physical children maturation. 2. Theory of Cognition There are two types of cognitive theory of motoric development. Skinner (1972; Bijou, 1989; Catania & Hernand, 1988, in Champbell, 1995) have developed behavioural theory as developmental theory asserting that integrative learning and fact reinforcement are important as environment view as drive and shaper, either motoric or cognitive development. This notion viewed environment as an area in developmental control. The second theory of cognition is proposed by Piaget (1952). Piaget stated that interaction between maturation of cognitive-neural structures and
environment is to enhance motor skill (Beilin, 1989, in Champbel, 1995). He, then, asserted that the change from functional behaviour to reflective motion has happened, and it can be worked out and coordinated to development of the children mental structure. Piaget divided major changes into 4 stages as follows: - Sensory-motor Stage (0-2 years) “Body Management Competence” Motoric skill development, in this phase, is called Body Management Competence period. It is as the foundation of motoric development. According to Piaget, infant was born with some inherent reflects as drives to explore the world. Initial schema is formed by inherent reflect difference. - Pre-operational Stage/ practices (late 2 – late 6 years) “Fundamental Motor Skills” This second phase is called preoperational. Monitoring playing order, Piaget showed psychological function of children works after the late 2 years. Piaget called as the procedure of responding mentally to the objects. This stage can be observed from rare mental operation and logically is insufficient yet. In this step, child learns to use and represent objects using descriptions and words. They still think selfishly and has problem to agree on others point of view. They can classify objects with one feature, such as collecting all red objects in diriment shapes or collecting all round objects in different colours. According to Piaget, preoperational stage is the following of sensory-motor stage and happens between 2 to 6 years. In motoric stage, children just enter to the so called Fundamental Motor Skill. - Concrete Operational Stage /representative (7 to 12 years) “Specialist Skills” This is the third stage. It happens between 6 to 12 years and is characterized by sufficient logical competence. In this stage, children motoric skill reaches Specialized Skills. - Formal Operational Stage (11 years to adult) “High Skills Attainment” This is the last stage of cognitive development of Piaget theory. This stage starts to be experienced by the children in eleven years (puberty period) and goes on till adult. This stage is characterized by the attainment of thinking competence abstractly, logically, and making inference from the available facts. Motor skill on this stage is the level of Higher Skill Attainment.
Pyramid of Skill Attainment Higher Skill Attainment (11) = Formal Operasional
Specialised Skills (7-10) = Representative = concrete operasional Fundamental Skills (3-6) = Fraxis = pre operasional Concrete
Body Management Competence (0-2) = Sensory Motor
Pigure.II.1. Pyramid of Skill Attainment Cognitive process and motion connects each other, where cognitive process works as motor control. On one hand, cognitive process includes attention, motivation, and emotional aspects in motor control as the base of goal settlement. On the other hand, motor control should cover perception and action system regulating the accomplishment of the main goals. At the present time, motor control learning demand for inclusion of cognitive learning to link perception and action. Thus, there are various systems in individuals connecting each other to produce functional moves (Shumway-Cook and Woollacoat, 2001). 3. Theory of Dynamic System This theory suggests that dynamic function is better than hierarchical structure and nerve maturation in influencing motoric development. Control structure connects to self-regulation progressively in a system optimizing skills progressively (Thelen et al,. 1987, p.41) B. Characteristics of Children Developmental at Kindergarten (TK) and Elementary (SD) level The Significant aspects of physical changes in the early childhood and SD development are those related to systems of bone and muscle, as well as motoric skills. Children in early years gains higher height average 5 to 7.6 cm a year. Thus, when they are in 4 to 6 years, their heights grow to 90 to 100 cm averagely; their legs become longer while their bodies become thinner. In the mid and late years of children age, their weight increases 2.3 to 3.2 averagely per year. The increasing weight is mainly due to the growth of skeleton and muscle, as well as the increased size of other body organs. The mass and strength of the muscles gradually increases at the same time “the infant weight” decreases. Flexible moves and knees in the early childhood enhance the muscle strength. The muscles become stronger because of sport and skill multiple times for years. Having many big muscles, boys become stronger than girls. At this stage, motoric development is slower and well-coordinated than at the early childhood. At the age of 4 to 6 years, most children can learn playing sports, running, climbing,
rope jumping, swimming, tri-cycling and bicycling, sliding and many more physical skills sports. At the same time, they will attain gross motoric skill including big muscle activities, both by boys and girls. At elementary students, physical, mental, emotional, and social developments can be identified through two features, as described in the following: Table. II.2. Characteristics of 6 to 8 year-old children development (elementary students) (Source: Willgoose, 1984)
1.
2.
Characteristics of 6 to 8 year-old children development (elementary students) General Characteristics Physical Relatively slower physical growth compared to their childhood. Big leg and arm muscles progress more than small muscles Coordination arm-eye is half-finished and still in progress. Eye view is still slow and tends to further at the initial of this period. Bone solidify, hearth and liver proportion be smaller than mass and body. Low immune Tiredness becomes problems in this period but more quickly healing Reacting time is a half from adult Main causes of death are accident, especially for boys At 5 to 8 year old, students gain high vitality and show high level of happiness and enthusiasm in every physical activity. mental-emotional-social developments Individualistic and possessive, egocentric after 6 years old Dramatic, imaginative and good imitator. Curious to general things. Various emotional reaction Love rhythmic tone Approaching 8 years, they start to find change by self-action and sometimes in trouble. Sensitive to other assessment, the decrease of respect to adult’s views. Interested in new physical skills and try to please their instructors and teachers. Boys and girls usually play separately in their own groups.
Table. II.3. Characteristics of 9 to 11 year-old children development (the intermediate grade pupil) (Source: Willgoose, 1984)
1.
Characteristics of 9 to 11 years old children development (the intermediate grade pupil) General Characteristics Physical Muscle strength underlies physical development Growth acceleration happens in the late stage, and progresses to adolescent. This differs from mature level of individuals. Different physical progress is affected by sex. Girls are more mature and taller than boys. Some girl students enter menstrual stage at 11 and 12
2.
years. Motoric skills progress well on girls than boys. Good coordination. Physical actions automatically are practiced, have more time for recreation. Interests in food and performance increase. Mental-emotional-social developments Concentration and interest level ranges of activities arises Demand for attention, acknowledgement, high competition Autonomy increases as well as desire to help Antagonism sex takes place, observable sexual modesty. High loyalty to group, team, and gang. Strong care toward group members’ recognition than teachers. Compete positively, either in physical or mental, but anger may emerge when they got tired, or declined motivation/braveness. Attractive to opposite sex by teasing, punching, chasing, etc. Want to move from small to large area Want to explore, interested in trial, critical to logical reason of thing.
The above explanation of characteristics of physical, mental, emotional, and social developmental of SD students shows us that basically when student is at SD level, he assesses his own competence and his friends. The skill attainment rates are closely related to social prestige. Moving to the third grade, excellent students in gross motoric skills can adapt more easily than students with low motoric skills. This shows a significant correlation between skill learning quality for children development and learning competence. Therefore, it requires more attention. Starting in 6 to 8 years stage and progressing to stage of 9 to 11, we can say that characteristics of student development differ slightly, but they are influenced by maturational process and some motor skills are more improved than the previous age period. C. Practice of Physical Education (Penjas) at Kindergarten (TK) and Elementary School (SD) level in Indonesia Referring to National Education Ministry Regulation (Permendiknas) No. 58 Year 2009 about Organisational Standard of Early Childhood Education (PAUD), describing the level of children development in age of 4 to 6 years, and comprising physical aspect, the components of physical aspect are as follow: Table. II.4. Attainment Level of children development in 4 to 6 years in Physical aspects Progress II. Physical A. Gross Motor
Developmental Attainment Ranges 4 -
