Neutralizing Music Piracy: An Empirical Examination

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Deviant Behavior, 29: 334 366, 2008 Copyright # Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 0163-9625 print/1521-0456 online DOI: 10.1080/01639620701588131

neutralizing music piracy: an empirical examination Jason R. Ingram Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA Sameer Hinduja Florida Atlantic University, Jupiter, Florida, USA The current study sought to test the viability of employing Sykes and Matza’s (1957) techniques of neutralization as a framework for understanding online music piracy. Using data from a sample of 2,032 undergraduates from a large Midwestern university, the relevance of neutralization theory is tested via multinomial logistic regression while controlling for other theoretical predictors and demographic variables. The findings indicated that greater acceptance of the techniques associated with denial of responsibility, denial of injury, denial of victim, and appeal to higher loyalties significantly predicted moderate levels of piracy participation. Furthermore, the effect of appeals to higher loyalty on piracy was found to be conditioned by the respondent’s approval of the behavior. Overall, results suggested that university settings may unwittingly facilitate a climate for

Received 18 December 2006; accepted 27 May 2007. This article is based on a paper presented at the 2006 American Society of Criminology Conference, Los Angeles, CA The authors thank the anonymous reviewers for their comments on earlier drafts. Address correspondence to Jason Ingram, School of Criminal Justice, Michigan State University, 560 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824-1118, USA. E-mail: ingramja@ msu.edu

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online piracy whereby students place a higher value on group norms rather than legal norms and do not consider the harms associated with the behavior.

INTRODUCTION According to International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) estimates, music sales had declined by over six billion dollars between 1998 and 2003. Such a decline has been largely attributed to the unregulated downloading and sharing of copyrighted music files over the Internet, a phenomenon known as online music piracy. Indeed, it has been estimated that approximately 870 million music files available online in 2005 were unauthorized (IFPI 2005). The fiscal losses have led some to contend that music piracy is ‘‘the greatest threat facing the music industry worldwide today’’ (Chiou et al. 2005:161). Not surprisingly, the impact of music piracy on the recording industry has recently fostered empirical research. To date, the majority of this research has been descriptive in nature and has focused primarily on estimating its prevalence (Angus Reid Worldwide 2000; Archambault 1999; Pew Internet and American Life Project 2000; Stenneken 1999; Webnoize 2000) or in identifying its relevant situational and social antecedents (Banerjee et al. 1998; Bhattacharjee et al. 2003; Chiou et al. 2005; Gopal et al. 2004). Few attempts, however, have been made to apply theoretical frameworks in order to identify why individuals engage in the behavior (d’Astous et al. 2005; Gopal et al. 2004; Hinduja 2006 are exceptions). Neutralization theory, as developed by Sykes and Matza (1957), is one framework that has yet to be applied to music piracy despite its potential explanatory utility. The five techniques central to the theory intuitively appear to be salient in explaining this phenomenon. This is because social control mechanisms are weakened in cyberspace, the harm inflicted as a result of piracy is often intangible and unobservable, and many situational justifications can seemingly be invoked from behind a computer when the opportunity is presented.

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Using data from a survey of over 2,000 university students, the current study attempted to fill this gap by assessing neutralization theory’s applicability to online music piracy to determine its empirical validity. More specifically, this work tested the extent to which students’ acceptance of neutralization techniques predicted their level of involvement in music piracy while controlling for relevant demographic and theoretical factors. Also tested was whether the effects of neutralizations on piracy were conditioned by students’ approval of the behavior, as prior research has indicated that neutralizations are differentially applied based on an individual’s beliefs (Agnew 1994). Before the context of the study is discussed, a brief description of the phenomenon of music piracy is provided, along with a summary of prior research on neutralization theory.

MUSIC PIRACY: BACKGROUND AND PRIOR RESEARCH Music piracy involves ‘‘the act of making available, transmitting, or copying someone else’s work over the Internet without permission’’ (IFPI 2005:18). It is carried out through the creation and distribution of digital music files—MP3s1— by individuals without the legal permission of those who own the copyright to the music. Such MP3s are unauthorized because they violate the reproduction and distribution tenets of the United States Copyright Act of 1976 (Copyright Office of the United States 2000a; Copyright Office of the United States 2000b; de Fontenay 1999; RIAA 2000), as non-owners must have explicit permission to reproduce or duplicate protected works, whether for profit or merely for personal listening pleasure. Two examples may help to provide clarity in terms of the law’s prohibition of music piracy. First, it is generally illegal 1 This piece focuses on unauthorized music files that are a violation of copyright laws. Similar to how ‘‘DOC’’ files are text representations or formats along with ‘‘TXT’’ and ‘‘WPD,’’ MP3s are audio representations—a specific unprotected, freely available digital music file format. In the current research, the terms ‘‘MP3’’ and ‘‘unauthorized digital music’’ are used interchangeably. These files should not be mistaken for (or confused with) the legal, protected, authorized digital music files that are currently available online through legitimate outlets (such as Napster-to-Go, Apple’s iTunes, RealNetworks’ Rhapsody, Yahoo! Music, MSN Music, EMusic, and Pressplay).

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to upload a copyrighted digital song or album to a Web or file server that can be accessed by others through their Web browser or through a file exchange program. This violates the reproduction tenet of U.S. copyright law because an exact copy of that sound recording has been reproduced onto another computer system. Second, it is generally illegal to download a copyrighted digital music file from an online source without paying for an official, licensed digital version of it. This violates the duplication tenet of the law because an exact copy of that sound recording has been duplicated onto the downloader’s computer system. To be clear, this study focuses on the latter, or the illegal downloading of copyrighted MP3s from an online source. Research on music piracy has only recently begun to be conducted, and most of the studies have been descriptive in nature. Much of this early research was sponsored by stakeholders in the music industry to gauge the prevalence of the phenomenon (Angus Reid Worldwide 2000; Archambault 1999; Pew Internet and American Life Project 2000; Stenneken 1999; Webnoize 2000). As such, we extend our discussion of prior research in this area to also include research on software piracy—a related behavior involving the unauthorized acquisition and use of computer software programs—when appropriate to position the incipient research on music piracy within a larger, more developed framework. In the music piracy literature, a number of demographic and attitudinal factors linked to intended or actual participation have been identified. For example, males and younger individuals are more likely to engage in the behavior, as well as individuals with faster Internet connection speeds (Bhattacharjee et al. 2003). Furthermore, individuals who do not perceive any risks of prosecution or punishment, or who believe that society views piracy as acceptable, are more likely to report higher intentions for engaging in music piracy (Chiou et al. 2005). These findings are similar to studies that have found software pirates to generally be male, younger, and more experienced with computers (Hinduja 2001, 2003; Rahim et al. 1999; Sims et al. 1996; Solomon and O’Brien 1990; Wood and Glass 1995) and to generally possess attitudes favorable to piracy (Al-Rafee and Cronan 2006; Christensen and Eining 1991).

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Only a few studies have applied theoretical frameworks to explain why people participate. For example, behavioral models identified that ethical individuals are less likely to engage in music piracy (Gopal et al. 2004). Moreover, individuals with normative beliefs about the appropriateness of piracy report higher intentions of engaging in the behavior (d’Astous et al. 2005; Gopal et al. 2004; Hinduja 2006). Within criminology, social learning theory and low self-control have also been shown to be relevant theoretical frameworks. Individuals who associate with others who pirate music, as well as individuals with lower levels of self-control have been found to engage in higher levels of music piracy (Hinduja 2006). It is important to note that these latter findings are also consistent with prior research examining the relationships between peer associations and low self-control on software piracy (Higgins 2005; Higgins et al. 2006; Higgins and Makin 2004). Despite these contributions, though, questions still remain as to what allows individuals to break from social and legal constraints to pirate music, and what mechanisms allow one to excuse the act. It appears that certain cognitive thought processes contribute to a person’s decision to participate, and produce justifications that render piracy acceptable. These merit further examination. NEUTRALIZATION THEORY Sociologists have found that individuals can engage in behavior they know is wrong by disavowing their deviance and presenting themselves as normal (De Young 1988). One framework of this process pertains to neutralization theory. In 1957, Gresham Sykes and David Matza introduced this perspective on social control, which attempted to explain how some juveniles appease and transgress the moral obligation to be bound by the law. To validate their activities of misconduct, individuals learn techniques they can use as qualifications to extricate themselves from personal responsibility even before the act is committed. This allows them to rhetorically neutralize whatever misgivings they might originally have had about participating in the wrongdoing (Sykes and Matza 1957). Then, through these justifications the imperatives of the dominant normative society are dismissed (although not diametrically opposed) for the time

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being in order to facilitate the commission of the crime. To neutralize internal and external demands for conformity, five types of justifications are explicated by Sykes and Matza (1957): denial of responsibility (‘‘it is not my fault’’), denial of injury (‘‘no harm will result from my actions’’), denial of victim (‘‘nobody got hurt’’), condemnation of the condemners (‘‘how dare they judge me, considering how corrupt and hypocritical they themselves are’’), and appeal to higher loyalties (‘‘there is a greater and higher cause’’). Although neutralization theory was originally developed to explain juveniles’ involvement in delinquency and violence, empirical support for this relationship has historically been mixed. Although a complete review of this relationship is beyond the scope of the current work (see Agnew 1994; Maruna and Copes 2005), it has generally been found that the effect of neutralization techniques on juvenile violence is weak (e.g., Austin 1977; Minor 1981) to moderate (e.g., Agnew 1994) at best. Certain issues stemming from this body of work do bear mentioning, however, as they have significantly influenced the methods for studying neutralization theory and are thereby directly related to the context of the current study. One issue centers around the measures used to capture neutralization techniques. Traditionally, researchers have developed and implemented general indicators for measuring neutralizations (Agnew 1994). Such measures may not have adequately captured the techniques, though, as subsequent research has indicated that ‘‘neutralizations may be used in specific situations and contexts, depending on the type of crime that is being or has been committed’’ (Maruna and Copes 2005:295). Thus, it has been recognized that specific measures should be implemented that are relevant for the type of deviance under study. Another issue has emphasized the importance of examining potential moderating effects on the neutralizationdeviance relationship. Prior research has found that adoption and use of the techniques may vary based on certain situational factors or based on an individual’s belief system (Agnew and Peters 1986). In this regard, examination of potential moderators is important as the small to moderate effect sizes in prior studies may be due to the fact that ‘‘neutralization may have a large effect on delinquency among

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some individuals and little or no effect on other individuals’’—thereby attenuating overall effects when individuals are analyzed together (Agnew 1994:562). Research on software piracy has identified that participants generally condone the behavior (e.g., Kievit 1991; Kini et al. 2004; Oz 1990; Paradice 1990; Peace et al. 2003; Ramakrishna et al. 2001; Solomon and O’Brien 1990), and so parsing out the relevance of neutralizations across supportive and unsupportive belief systems is essential as they may be differentially applied across groups. It has also been proposed that the theory may only be a relevant framework for studying certain types of deviance. In their recent review of the neutralization literature, Maruna and Copes (2005) suggested that the theory is, perhaps, best applicable to minor types of crimes and delinquency as the results of prior studies generally indicate an inverse relationship between the seriousness of the act and the relevance of neutralization techniques. Furthermore, they noted that even within specific types of crimes, only certain neutralizations may be applied by offenders, and future research should serve to identify which techniques are related to specific forms of deviance (Maruna and Copes 2005:295
96). The implications of this issue when considering the theory’s applicability to music piracy are well founded as the theory has consistently been found to be relevant to the study of white-collar crime—a type of deviance similar in nature to online piracy. By way of example, Hollinger (1991) surveyed employees of businesses, corporations, hospitals, and manufacturing firms in an effort to determine the degree of neutralizing that exists in conjunction with property and production deviance in the workplace. Neutralizations were significantly related to the unethical and illegal actions of employees, as the highest levels of theft and counterproductivity were reported by those who invoked the tenets of denial of injury and denial of victim (Hollinger 1991). Piquero, Tibbets, and Blankenship (2005) more recently found that denial of injury and appeal to higher loyalties were significant predictors of intentions to engage in corporate crime. Finally, in a somewhat indirect examination of neutralization theory, Benson (1985) found that recently convicted white-collar criminals used rationalizations to lessen the effect that their new criminal status had on their own

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self-perspectives. Although virtually all of those interviewed used some type of rationalization, he found that the specific types of rationalizations used varied by the type of crime they had committed (e.g., tax violations, antitrust violations, or embezzlement). Cumulatively, the strength of these findings have led some to conclude that ‘‘neutralization theory has found its most receptive audience in studies of organizational and white collar crime’’ (Maruna and Copes 2005:223). Finally, it has been proposed that the relationship between neutralizations and deviance may be curvilinear (Copes and Williams 2007; Maruna and Copes 2005). In this regard, the individuals who are most likely to rely on neutralizations to excuse their behavior are those only partly committed to the behavior under study. In other words, neutralization techniques may not be relevant for those individuals who are either totally committed to conventional behaviors or totally committed to deviant behaviors. As Copes and Williams (2007:251) note, reliance on neutralizations should be low for ‘‘groups who are either hyper-committed to dominant moral values or else strongly committed to a subcultural frame of reference.’’ As such, the neutralization relationship may be best analyzed as a nonlinear function rather than a linear one (Maruna and Copes, 2005).2 CURRENT STUDY The current study aims to extend prior research on both music piracy and neutralization theory in two ways. First, we seek to test the relevance of neutralization techniques to music pirating behavior, a relationship that has yet to be examined. Based on the neutralization literature, such a relationship appears viable because music piracy—as compared to other types of deviant behavior—is both minor in nature and similar to certain forms of white-collar crime. Using specific neutralization measures developed for the study of music piracy, we analyze the effect of neutralization techniques on levels of participation in piracy for a sample of undergraduate students while controlling for other 2 We thank an anonymous reviewer for directing our attention to this aspect of the neutralization literature.

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theoretical predictors and antecedents. In addition, we also examine the potential conditioning effect that individuals’ beliefs regarding the appropriateness of music piracy might have on neutralization-piracy relationships. If beliefs indeed moderate these relationships (e.g., Agnew 1994), then neutralizations should be more relevant among those who disapprove, as it is these individuals who attempt to rationalize their behavior in a way that coincides with their beliefs. Second, the study adds to the neutralization literature by examining the proposed nonlinear relationship between acceptance of the techniques and the level of participation in music piracy. If neutralizations are most likely to be relevant for individuals only partly committed to engaging in criminal acts, then the effect of the techniques should be strongest for these individuals. To test for this relationship, we estimate the effects of neutralization techniques across different levels of piracy participation. METHOD Study Site and Data Data were collected from a sample of undergraduate students at a large, public university in the Midwest region of the United States in the fall of 2003. Within the university, most students have high-speed Internet access in campus computer labs, their residence hall rooms, or through cable modem or DSL connectivity in their off-campus homes. Others may primarily use a dial-up modem to connect to the university’s network, and although speeds are significantly slower in this context, online access is still attained. Students are required to use the Internet for a variety of academic reasons, including research, correspondence, and various types of scholarly projects. Moreover, tasks as essential as registration for courses are only possible online, demonstrating the tremendous necessity of connectivity for those currently enrolled in the university. Notwithstanding schoolrelated responsibilities, the Internet has become valuable for meeting social and personal needs, and thereby plays a large, functional role in the lives of most students. The student respondents were enrolled across sixteen classes selected to represent the fifteen colleges of the

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university.3 Within the survey, students were asked questions about: their unauthorized digital music downloading behavior; situations and circumstances that might influence downloading through neutralizations; and various attitudes regarding participation. Students were also asked questions regarding their demographic characteristics, type of Internet connection, and abilities to perform various online activities. Before the questionnaire was administered to sample respondents, a pre-test conducted on fifty-two undergraduate criminal justice students served as an initial indicator for the validity of questionnaire items, and demonstrated significant variation in music piracy participation to allow for statistical analyses. Before administration of the finalized instrument, sample respondents were informed of the general nature of the study (so as not to influence the direction of responses), and that their participation was voluntary and anonymous. Upon completion of the survey, the students were debriefed to reveal the exact nature of the study. Following list-wise deletion of cases with missing data, 2,032 valid responses were obtained. These responses comprise the sample used in the following analyses. Although the use of college student samples inherently raises concerns for generalizing to the broader population, its use in the current study is appropriate and especially insightful for two reasons. First, it has been reported that young people—particularly those around the traditional college student age—are the most likely to obtain their music from illegal sources (IFPI 2005). Second, university environments have been described as hotbeds for music piracy where the majority of digital song downloading takes place. 3

Classes were selected by first obtaining a list of the departments and schools within the fifteen university colleges. Three majors within each college were randomly selected so that specific classes within them could be identified. Between one and two lower-level classes and between one and two upper-level classes were randomly selected from the chosen majors using the university’s course catalogue. This sampling procedure produced a list of 185 potential classes eligible for survey administration. Correspondence was then sent to the professors of these classes describing the nature of the study and requesting 20 minutes of class time to administer the survey; 16 gave permission. Despite the fact that permission was given in only 16 of 185 classes, a broad range of student majors were found to be represented in those 16 courses due to their interdisciplinary content and because some of the courses were required for all undergraduates to take.

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Thus, the current sample captures a portion of the population that is most likely to pirate music in a setting that is most likely to facilitate this behavior (Healy 2003; Latonero 2000). Dependent Variable In order to capture students’ levels of music piracy participation, respondents were asked to report how many unauthorized digital music files they had personally downloaded in the prior year. Potential responses included: 0, 1
10, 11
100, 101
1,000, or more than 1,000 files. Based on their answers, students were placed into one of the five categories comprising the variable level of participation with the following groupings: no participation(e.g., 0 files), low participation (e.g., 1
10 files), medium participation (e.g., 11
100 files), moderate participation (e.g., 101
1,000 files), or high participation (e.g., more than 1,000 files). Descriptive statistics for this variable as well as all other independent variables in the study are included in Table 1. Out of the 2,032 total respondents, the majority of students reported medium (24.7%) or moderate (37.0%) levels of participation with fewer students reporting no (21.9%), low (7.8%), or high (8.7%) levels of participation. TECHNIQUES OF NEUTRALIZATION The original five techniques developed by Sykes and Matza (1957) were used to inform the operationalization of neutralizations as applied to music piracy. Prior research emphasized the importance of demonstrating the ability to differentiate between responses that exhibit actual neutralizations as compared to justifications following the act (Agnew 1994; Hollinger 1991). As such, the neutralization questions were asked in a manner that would elicit acceptance of the neutralization techniques to facilitate participation, rather than post-hoc rationalizations to render the behavior acceptable or appropriate. Thus, for all questions serving as indicators of the neutralization techniques, respondents were asked the extent to which each of the situations presented would make them more likely to pirate music, regardless of whether they actually did so. Responses ranged from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree), with 3 indicating a neutral response. For each technique, higher

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TABLE 1 Descriptive Statistics (n ¼ 2,032) Variables Dependent Variable Level of Piracy Participation No (n ¼ 444) Low (n ¼ 158) Medium (n ¼ 502) Moderate (n ¼ 751) High (n ¼ 177) Neutralization Techniques Responsibility Injury=Victim Condemnation Higher Loyalty Control Variables Peer Association Male Black Asian Age  21 Major Internet Speed Internet Proficiency Disapprove of MP3s

Mean

S.D.

Min.

Max.

3.03

1.29

1

5

3.95 3.82 3.47 3.91

.83 .90 1.14 .87

1 1 1 1

5 5 5 5

4.05 .43 .10 .06 .90 .18 .89 3.35 .10

.79 .49 .30 .23 .29 .38 .31 .96 .30

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

5 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1

scores indicate that respondents would be more likely to engage in music piracy. Denial of Responsibility Three survey items were used to measure the concept involving denial of responsibility. Students were asked whether they would be more likely to download illegal music files in the following three situations: (1) if they could not afford the purchase price of the music on CD; (2) because numerous sources offering MP3s for free download are readily available online; and (3) because there are no clear-cut rules, laws, regulations, or even guidelines when it comes to MP3 file exchanges. With albums on CD costing approximately $15 each or individually licensed downloadable tracks costing approximately $1 each, students can deny responsibility for pirating music on the basis that it is not

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financially possible to legitimately purchase all the music they desire. Responsibility may also be denied when individuals note the widespread availability of unauthorized music on the Internet or the ambiguity of laws regulating downloading. This allows them to contend that if others did not make pirated music so easily accessible or if regulations for downloading music were clearer, then they would resort to using legitimate means for obtaining music. The three items were used to calculate a mean score (Cronbach’s a ¼ .74) and comprise the variable responsibility. Denial of Injury/Denial of Victim A three-item mean score was also used as a measure for both denial of injury and denial of victim. Respondents were asked whether they would be more likely to download MP3s if: (1) it were known that the recording industry ‘‘could afford it’’ and would never miss the tiny amount of proceeds lost; (2) it were known that law enforcement agencies, universities, and authorities could not care less about MP3 file exchanges; and (3) it were held that no one is really getting hurt from Internet distribution (Cronbach’s a ¼ .82). In the case of music piracy, individuals may feel that the recording industry reaps a sizable profit and has enough capital that they will never miss the revenue of which pirates deprive them. Additionally, if law enforcement and other authoritative entities are perceived as unresponsive or apathetic to detecting and sanctioning offenders, individuals may develop a lack of awareness of the consequences of music piracy, allowing them to deny that any injury takes place. These potential neutralizations are reflected in the measure injury=victim. Condemnation of Condemners Students were asked whether they would be more likely to download MP3s ‘‘if it were held that the music industry deserves to have their music distributed freely online considering the fact that they rip off consumers.’’ Individuals may fault the music industry for ‘‘overcharging’’ the consumer or believe the success of music artists is due to the industry’s monopolistic practices. Accordingly, they may shift attention away from their own deviant behavior and toward the negative or hypocritical tendencies of those

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involved in the music industry whom they are expected to esteem and admire. In this regard, blame for music piracy is placed on the industry and those it represents, making the personal actions of the students (e.g., pirating music) comparatively acceptable. The relevant variable in this case is condemnation. Appeal to Higher Loyalties A two-item mean score was used to measure the final neutralization technique. Students were asked whether they would be more likely to download if: (1) a family member, friend, or significant other needed the music and (2) the music will be used to complete a project for school or work. Individuals may contend that music piracy is acceptable if obtaining the unauthorized files fulfills a greater cause or purpose, such as meeting the needs of those closest to them, or to fulfill a work or school obligation. These items comprise the variable higher loyalty (Cronbach’s a ¼ .75). Control Variables Nine additional variables found to be related to various forms of piracy in prior studies were included as controls. In order to control for individuals’ peer influences, the three-item measure peer association was included. Students were asked about their level of agreement with the following statements: (1) my friends support my MP3 usage; (2) I associate with others who are supportive of my MP3 usage; and (3) I was introduced by another person to MP3s. Potential responses ranged from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree), with 3 indicating a neutral response. A mean score was computed with higher values indicating stronger associations with peers who engage in music piracy (Cronbach’s ¼ .75). In order to control for attitudes toward music piracy and to test for moderating effects, the variable disapprove of MP3s was created, and measured whether students believed downloading unauthorized MP3s was an appropriate or inappropriate behavior. Those who believed it was inappropriate were coded as 1, and comprised 10 percent of the sample. Five variables were used to measure respondents’ demographic characteristics. Male students were coded as 1 and consisted of 43 percent of the sample. Respondents’ race

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was measured with two variables: Black (10% of sample students) and Asian (6% of sample students). White (78% of sample students) served as the reference category. Age was coded as a dichotomous variable with students 21 years or younger (90% of the sample) coded as 1.4 Because those in certain majors that place an emphasis on computer- or telecommunications-related skills may be more likely to pirate, Major was also included as a control with those in Engineering or Communication programs (18% of the sample) coded as 1. The inclusion of two final controls deserves mention. Internet speed was a dichotomous variable (high-speed ¼ 1; 1; dialup=no connection ¼ 0) reflecting respondent connection speed for their Internet service.5 Internet proficiency was an ordinal-level variable indicating the number of online activities in which the respondent had participated, and ranged from zero (coded as 1) to nine or more (coded as 5).6 Inclusion of these Internet-related variables was based on prior research suggesting both connection speed and computer usage are correlates of software piracy (Higgins and Makin 2004; Hinduja 2001, 2003). Descriptive statistics show that the majority of sample students had high-speed Internet connections (89%) and that many were well-versed with various online activities. Analytic Strategy Data analysis for the current study took place in three stages. First, bivariate associations are discussed to present an initial assessment of the relationships between the neutralization 4

Age was dichotomized because the vast majority of respondents were of traditional college age, and not much additional insight would be gained by measuring piracy participation at each individual level (e.g., age 17, age 18, age 19, age 20). 5 Individuals with no Internet connection were combined with individuals with only dialup connections in the reference group due to the fact that both groups have significantly less opportunity to download large amounts of MP3 files compared to those with high-speed connections. 6 To measure Internet proficiency, the respondent was asked how many of the following he or she had done: ‘‘changed my browser’s ‘startup’ or ‘home’ page,’’ ‘‘made a purchase online for more than $100,’’ ‘‘participated in an online game,’’ ‘‘participated in an online auction,’’ ‘‘changed my ‘cookie’ preferences,’’ ‘‘participated in an online chat or discussion (not including email, ICQ, or AOL Instant Messenger, or similar instant messaging programs),’’ ‘‘listened to a radio broadcast or music clip online,’’ ‘‘made a telephone call online,’’ ‘‘created a web page,’’ and ‘‘set up my incoming and outgoing mail server preferences.’’

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techniques, control variables, and music piracy participation. The correlation analysis also served as a preliminary investigation into potential multicollinearity issues among the neutralization techniques. Next, multivariate analyses involved the estimation of a multinomial regression model to test the effects of the neutralization techniques on music piracy participation while controlling for the remaining independent variables.7 This model compared students in the low, medium, moderate, and high participation categories to the baseline category of no participation. To better illustrate these relationships, predicted probabilities are also presented for the five piracy outcomes based on varying levels of acceptance of the neutralization techniques. Finally, subgroup analyses were conducted to determine if students’ disapproval of unauthorized music downloading moderated the neutralization
piracy relationships. Thus, separate multinomial regression models were run for those who approved and disapproved of unauthorized MP3 downloading. The Wald test was used to assess whether the estimated effects for the two groups significantly differed from one another (Liao 2004). Similar to the coefficient comparison test for OLS regression (e.g., Paternoster et al. 1998), this test assesses the difference between the two logit coefficients but is based on the v2 distribution. RESULTS Nonparametric correlations (see Appendix A) indicate that, with the exception of the racial variable Asian, all of the independent variables were significantly related to level of piracy participation. Peer association was the strongest correlate of participation, wheras Internet speed and Internet proficiency were also positive but weak correlates of level of participation. Overall, the neutralization techniques were weakly related to piracy, with greater acceptance of the techniques being associated with higher participation levels. Results for the demographic characteristics showed that males, white 7

Although level of piracy participation is ordinal in nature, tests of the parallel lines assumption revealed that this assumption was violated as the slope coefficients were not found to be parallel across categories. When this is the case, multinomial logistic models are a more appropriate modeling procedure as the parallel line constraint is not assumed (Long 1997).

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students, those under the age of 21, engineering and communication majors, and those who approved of downloading unauthorized music were positively associated with piracy levels. Bivariate relationships among the neutralization techniques suggested that multicollinearity was not a problem, as none of the correlations were above .50. That said, additional collinearity diagnostics were also examined for an initial regression model. Tolerance levels for all variables were within the acceptable range (> .40). These results indicated that the neutralization techniques could be included in a multivariate model in order to assess their effects on the outcome of interest while controlling for each other and for peer, attitudinal, demographic, and Internet-related characteristics. Multivariate results from the multinomial model are presented in Table 2. Four significant relationships were found between the neutralization techniques and the piracy outcome categories. Three of these relationships were present when comparing moderate participation to no participation. Specifically, the results from these comparisons indicated that increases in students’ acceptance of the techniques representing appeals to higher loyalty, denial of responsibility, and denial of injury and victim increased the odds of moderate participation by 24 percent, 29 percent, and 30 percent, respectively. The other significant relationship was present when comparing high participation to the no participation reference category. In this case, greater acceptance of appeals to higher loyalty increased the odds of high participation by 50 percent. To better illustrate the effects of the neutralization variables on levels of piracy participation, predicted probabilities are presented in Figure 1 and in Appendix B. Although the results from the multinomial model in Table 2 report the effects when comparing piracy levels to the no participation category, the predicted probabilities derived from the model highlight differences in the probabilities of piracy levels based on varying levels of neutralization acceptance. The probabilities were calculated while holding all other variables in the model at their base values.8 The results generally show that acceptance of the neutralization 8 Base values for the independent variables in the models were set at the mean for continuous variables and at 1 (e.g., the attribute of interest) for binary variables.

351

.15 .15 .10 .13 .13 .21 .29 .45 .30 .27 .29 .11 .28 .81

.25
.03 .03 .03

.77 .27 .09
.22 .33 .31 .25 .36 .01
6.83 2.16 1.31 1.09 .80 1.38 1.36 1.29 1.44 1.01 —

1.28 .98 1.03 1.03

S.E. Exp(b)

Reference category is No Participation.  p < .05;  p < .01;  p < .001.

Neutralizations Responsibility Injury=Victim Condemnation Higher Loyalty Controls Peer Association Male Black Asian Age  21 Major Internet Speed Internet Proficiency Disapprove of MP3s Intercept Nagelkerke R2 ¼ .22

b

Low

.72 .49
.38 .07 .81 .18 .48 .36
.54
6.45

.16 .19
.09 .10

b

.09 .15 .23 .30 .23 .21 .22 .08 .22 .60

.11 .11 .08 .10 2.05 1.64 .68 1.07 2.24 1.20 1.61 1.44 .58 —

1.18 1.21 .91 1.11

S.E. Exp(b)

Medium

.85 .68
.30 .06 .95 .47 .48 .38
.85
8.13

.25 .26
.06 .21

b

.09 .14 .21 .29 .23 .19 .21 .07 .23 .60

.11 .11 .07 .10 2.34 1.97 .74 1.06 2.58 1.60 1.61 1.46 .43 —

1.29 1.30 .94 1.24

S.E. Exp(b)

Moderate

.69 .70
.67 .16 2.05 .07 .38 .33
.45
10.23

.25 .07 .12 .40

b

.13 .20 .35 .40 .53 .27 .32 .10 .33 .98

.16 .15 .10 .15

1.99 2.01 .51 1.17 7.78 1.07 1.46 1.39 .64 —

1.28 1.07 1.12 1.50

S.E. Exp(b)

High

TABLE 2 Multinomial Logistic Regression Results of Neutralization Techniques and Control Variables Predicting Level of Participation in Music Piracy (n ¼ 2,032)

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352

FIGURE 1 Predicted Probability Plots.

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FIGURE 1 Continued .

techniques produced the greatest effects for the likelihood of being in the medium or moderate participation categories. For instance, students in strong agreement with the responsibility, injury=victim, and higher loyalty techniques had much higher chances of being in the medium (22
24%) and moderate (40
43%) participation categories, respectively, while having much lower chances of being in the no (15
16%), low (10
13%), or high (7
10%) participation categories. Although strong agreement with these three techniques was associated with higher probabilities for the medium participation category, there was little variation within this outcome across agreement levels. More profound differences were found across levels of acceptance for the moderate participation category. When looking at Figure 1, it is evident that the probabilities steadily increased as the level of acceptance for these three techniques moved from strong disagreement to strong agreement. In fact, absolute differences in the predicted probabilities as acceptance moved from strong disagreement to strong agreement was .11 for the responsibility technique, .17 for the injury=victim technique, and .12 for the higher loyalty technique. Thus, the overall results from Table 2 and the predicted probabilities suggest that acceptance of these three neutralizations had their greatest influence on moderate levels of piracy participation. Finally, it should be noted that although strong acceptance of the condemnation technique was associated with higher probabilities of students being medium and

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moderate participants, there was very little variation in the probabilities across acceptance levels within any of the outcome categories. Returning to the multinomial results in Table 2, the results for the control variables also provide some interesting findings. Generally, students’ associations with peers who support or engage in music piracy, males, students 21 years of age or younger, students who approve of downloading MP3s, and those with greater levels of Internet proficiency were consistent predictors of medium, moderate, and high levels of piracy compared to the no participation reference group. Of these control variables, age had the strongest effect on levels of piracy, particularly for high participation as the odds of being in this category were over 7 (7.09) times higher for students 21 years or younger. Peer associations also produced some of the strongest effects in the model. Overall, this model explained approximately 22 percent of the variation in levels of piracy participation. The results for the subgroup models are presented in Table 3. It bears mentioning that only the control variables of peer association, gender, age, major, and Internet proficiency could be included as the remaining controls did not have sufficient variation across subgroups to allow for analysis. Findings indicated that students who disapproved of unauthorized music downloading were significantly more likely to be influenced by the neutralization measure of higher loyalty. Those who disapproved were significantly more likely to be in the moderate and high participation categories if they had higher levels of acceptance of this technique compared to those in the no participation category. Interestingly, the effect of higher loyalty was substantially stronger for the sub-sample of students who disapproved of MP3s yet reported downloading more than 1,000 files than the effect for the total sample.9 Greater 9 Due to the small number of students who reported disapproving of MP3 downloading yet engaging in high levels of piracy (n ¼ 14), additional steps were taken to determine if the finding was due to idiosyncrasies associated with the responses to the dependent measure. Further descriptive analyses for these individuals revealed that their response to the piracy participation measure was generally consistent with similar questions on the survey measuring piracy participation (e.g., number of songs downloaded in the last week and month and number of total albums downloaded) in the sense that responses also reflected high levels of unauthorized downloading.

355


.13(.08) .15(.23) 1.23 .02(.11) .53(.27)y 3.07

.92 1.80
.47 1.93



.09(.11) .59(.30) 4.52


.11(.15) .66(.34)y 4.21

1.01 1.70


.87 1.17


1.32 .71


.28(.12)
.34(.34) 2.86

1.06 .65


.06(.16)
.43(.44) 1.09

Exp(b) 1.19 1.40


b(S.E.) .17(.12) .34(.34) 0.22

1.42 .85


.35(.17)
.17(.42) 1.30

Exp(b)

Medium

.10(.11) .86(.31) 8.56


.07(.08)
.16(.25) 0.15

.36(.12)
.27(.36) 2.82

.29(.12) .09(.35) 0.32

b(S.E.)

Moderate

1.10 2.37


.93 .85


1.43 .76


1.34 1.09


Exp(b)

p < .06;  p < .05;  p < .01. Reference Category is No Participation. Total Sample (n ¼ 2,032); Approve Sub-sample (n ¼ 1,826); Disapprove Sub-sample (n ¼ 206).

y

Responsibility Approve Disapprove Wald Test Injury=Victim Approve Disapprove Wald Test Condemnation Approve Disapprove Wald Test Higher Loyalty Approve Disapprove Wald Test Nagelkerke R2 Approve ¼ .181 Disapprove ¼ .489

b(S.E.)

Low

.23(.16) 1.90(.58) 7.72

.15(.11)
.29(.34) 1.49

.13(.16)
.17(.52) 0.30

.25(.17) .16(.58) 0.02

b(S.E.)

High

1.25 6.67


1.17 .75


1.14 .84


1.28 1.18


Exp(b)

TABLE 3 Conditional Effects of Student Approval of MP3s on the Relationship between Neutralization Techniques and Level of Participation in Music Piracy

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acceptance increased the odds of being in the high category by a factor of 6.67 for students who disapproved, while only increasing the odds by 1.50 (see Table 2) for the total sample. Disapproving students with low levels of involvement in music piracy were also significantly more likely to invoke the technique of condemnation compared to those in the no participation category. Results from Wald coefficient comparison tests revealed that the effects of higher loyalty in the low (4.21, p < .05), moderate (8.56, p < .01) and high participation (7.72, p < .01) categories as well as the effect of condemnation on the low participation category (4.52, p < .05) were significantly different across subgroups. Examination of the pseudo-R2 values also indicated substantial differences between the two subgroups. For example, the model for the sub-sample of students who approved of MP3 downloading explained only 18 percent of the variation in piracy levels, whereas the model for the sub-sample of students who disapproved explained almost 49 percent of the variation in piracy levels. This difference was due in part to the stronger effect of the neutralization techniques, but it should be noted that the difference was also partly due to the differential effects of the control variables in the disapproval model (not reported). DISCUSSION The current study sought to test the viability of employing Sykes and Matza’s (1957) techniques of neutralization as a framework for understanding online music piracy. The results indicated that greater acceptance of the techniques associated with denial of responsibility, denial of injury, denial of victim, and appeals to higher loyalty were significant predictors of moderate levels of piracy participation (e.g., downloading 101
1,000 MP3s). Greater acceptance of these techniques substantially increased the probabilities of moderate participation. Furthermore, greater acceptance of the higher loyalty technique was also a significant predictor of high participation levels (e.g., downloading > 1,000 MP3s). Although these results were rather modest when compared to some of the other control variables in the model (such as peer associations and age), findings from subsequent

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subgroup analyses indicated that the effect of higher loyalty on piracy participation levels was much stronger for the subsample of students who disapproved of MP3 downloading. Thus, the relationship between this specific neutralization and music piracy appears to be conditioned by students’ beliefs regarding unauthorized downloading. Before the implications of the findings are discussed, certain limitations should be noted to qualify the conclusions that can be drawn. First, the sample of individuals used in the study was composed of undergraduates at a university that relies heavily on computer technology and the Internet within the academic setting. Although use of undergraduates is insightful as the sample captures a portion of the population most likely to engage in music piracy (Healy 2003; Latonero 2000), the results may not generalize to non-student populations or to other student populations in different university settings. As such, future research would benefit by replicating this line of research across universities of varying student and regional demographics as well as with non-student samples. Second, it should be noted that the neutralization measures in the current study deviate, to a certain degree, from Sykes and Matza’s (1957) original conceptualization of the techniques. Following the suggestions of prior research, the measures used in the study were constructed to specifically apply to the phenomenon under study. Accordingly, certain concessions had to be made. For example, the indicators measuring denial of injury and denial of victim—two separate techniques within neutralization theory—had to be combined in the current work as it was found that these measures could not be conceptually distinguished. Finally, the study suffers from temporal ordering problems between the neutralization measures and music piracy. Although, the design of the study attempted to lessen the impact of this limitation by measuring the techniques so that they would indicate acceptance of the neutralizations rather than posthoc justifications for the behavior, the cross-sectional nature of the study makes it impossible to demonstrate causality between the neutralization tenets and piracy. Despite these limitations, the findings suggest that neutralization theory can be a useful framework for understanding online piracy and bear important policy and theoretical implications for efforts to address this behavior, especially

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within university settings. First, the finding that students who believed that little harm is caused by downloading unauthorized MP3s were significantly more likely to participate in moderate levels of piracy elicits concern. These results imply the need for universities to develop strategies to demonstrate the tangible harm that is caused by music piracy, and that can reach a wide student audience. For instance, personal accounts from local music distributors could be presented on campuses that detail how the phenomenon has affected them. Such a strategy may reify the harm inflicted by piracy and could consequently preempt neutralizations to engage in the behavior. Because piracy occurs online (which distances and deindividuates participants from the act), and because people tend to associate music with the actual artist rather than with others within the music industry (Gopal et al. 2004), the belief that no harm is done may very well persist if unaddressed. The current work also identified that students who placed an emphasis on immediate group norms (e.g., appeals to higher loyalty) such as peer=family or work=school norms participated in higher levels of piracy. This finding is consistent with prior research that has found this particular technique to be regularly employed by members of this sample population (Maruna and Copes 2005:233). Students’ use of this technique combined with the strong effect found for peer associations may suggest that an informal climate exists within university settings that facilitates unauthorized downloading. The finding that appeals to higher loyalty was strongest among students who disapproved of music piracy also suggests the existence of such a climate, as it implies this subgroup may temporarily offset their own beliefs in order to suit their perceived expectations of immediate group norms. When groups of students hold strong perceptions about engaging in illegal behavior (e.g., music piracy), it may become necessary to shift prevention efforts from the individual to the group setting in order to modify this climate. Thus, academic institutions may need to take a greater role in addressing the potentiality and actuality of the phenomenon through macro-level practice or policy. Recent research has indeed shown that universities have begun to address the phenomenon of music piracy. For example, the Campus Computing Project found in 2003 that

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80 percent of public, and 78 percent of private, universities have policies in place explicitly prohibiting individuals from downloading copyrighted content (Word 2003). These primarily take the form of Acceptable Use Policies (AUPs) that delineate general appropriate and inappropriate use of computer systems and software. For example, they prohibit the unlawful access, infiltration, disruption, and damage of systems or networks belonging to others. In addition, some colleges and universities are implementing substantive modules covering Computer Ethics in introductory classes (Read 2005). Thus, formally engendering a greater respect for intellectual creations and property among students through strategies such as these should increasingly become a function of higher learning. Perhaps the most concerning finding is the fact that almost 90 percent of sample respondents believed that downloading unauthorized music files was an appropriate behavior. This may also help to explain the moderate effect sizes for the injury=victim and higher loyalty neutralization measures on piracy in analyses of the entire sample, as well as the stronger effect for higher loyalty in the subgroup analysis. Research on neutralization theory emphasizes that in order for rationalizations to be evoked, individuals must believe that the behavior they contemplate engaging in is wrong (Agnew 1994; Agnew and Peters 1986; De Young 1988; Maruna and Copes 2005). Thus, in the current context neutralizations may not be as relevant for a large portion of sample students because they do not feel the need to qualify this type of behavior. With respect to theoretical implications, the current work can inform future studies of neutralization theory and deviance. The results indicated a nonlinear relationship between acceptance of certain techniques and participation in music piracy; a relationship similar to that proposed by recent neutralization research (Copes and Williams, 2007; Maruna and Copes, 2005). Consistent with the suggestion of Maruna and Copes (2005) that neutralizations should be most relevant for individuals only partly committed to a criminal act, the current results indicated that techniques were most relevant for moderate levels of piracy participation and less relevant for other participation levels. Future research may benefit by further investigating this

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curvilinear relationship with respect to other forms of criminal behavior. The presence of such a nonlinear relationship is also in accordance with the recent notion that the explanatory power of neutralization theory is conceptually bounded by one’s commitment to conventional or deviant values (Topalli 2006). As Topalli (2006:497) has suggested, neutralization theory ‘‘is limited to elucidating the behavior of offenders who maintain some attachment to conventional values or who at least understand and respond to the notion of guilt. But it tells us little about the offending behavior of those for whom guilt and conventional factors are inconsequential.’’ Such a notion indicates that neutralization theory may be most useful when incorporated with other theoretical frameworks (Maruna and Copes, 2005). Thus, future research may benefit by examining the theory as a part of broader conceptual perspectives such as learning and subcultural theories. Additionally, it may be useful to combine the study of neutralization techniques with similar frameworks that have recently been developed—such as Copes and Williams’ (2007) techniques of affirmation or Topalli’s (2006) formalistic approach for the study of hardcore offending— in order to obtain a better understanding of the underlying processes associated with criminal offending patterns. Finally, it appears useful here to also consider the applicability of situational crime prevention, a theoretical paradigm that concentrates on the circumstances associated with a crime, and how the setting, conditions, and context can be modified to preclude its manifestation. Situational crime prevention seeks to prevent or address crime by implementing strategies to increase the risk to the offender, increase the effort associated with the activity, decrease the rewards stemming from the successful execution of the offense, and remove or reduce the use of excuses to condone the behavior (Clarke and Homel 1997). If the presence and attractiveness of criminal possibilities for would-be offenders is decreased, it follows that a reduction in crime will result (Clarke 1997:2). The fourth component seems quite relevant when weighing the role of neutralizations in music piracy. Although a detailed explication is outside the scope of the current work, removing excuses can be facilitated by setting rules,

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stimulating one’s conscience, controlling disinhibitors, and by encouraging compliance (Clarke and Homel 1997). Again, the use of Acceptable Use Policies regarding Internet and computer usage, warning messages on the network and signage in prominent places, and fair prices for digital music may collectively help toward this end. Future research should empirically test whether this theory is relevant in understanding and addressing online piracy. REFERENCES Agnew, R. 1994. ‘‘The Techniques of Neutralization and Violence.’’ Criminology 32:555
580. Agnew, R. and A. A. R. Peters. 1986. ‘‘The Techniques of Neutralization: An Analysis of Predisposing and Situational Factors.’’ Criminal Justice and Behavior 13:81
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259. Angus Reid Worldwide. 2000. ‘‘Despite the Use of MP3 Technology being Widespread among Internet-Enabled Canadians, CD-Buying Behaviour Remains Strong.’’ Angus Reid, Retrieved September 24, 2001 (www.angusreid.com). Archambault, D. 1999. ‘‘MP3 Format and the Purchasing of Music.’’ Johnson and Wales University, Retrieved September 30, 2001 (www.mp3.com/new/236.html). Austin, R. L. 1977. ‘‘Commitment, Neutralization, and Delinquency.’’ Pp. 127
137. In Juvenile Delinquency: Little Brother Grows Up, edited by T. N. Ferdinand. California: Sage. Banerjee, D., T. P. Cronan, and T. W. Jones. 1998. ‘‘Modeling IT Ethics: A Study in Situational Ethics.’’ Mis Quarterly 22:31
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111. Chiou, J. S., C. Huang, and H. Lee. 2005. ‘‘The Antecedents of Music Piracy: Attitudes and Intentions.’’ Journal of Business Ethics 57:161
174. Christensen, A. L. and M. M. Eining. 1991. ‘‘Factors Influencing Software Piracy: Implications for Accountants.’’ Journal of Information Systems 5(1):67
80. Clarke, R. V. 1997. Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies. Guilderland, New York: Harrow and Heston.

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Clarke, R. V. and R. Homel. 1997. ‘‘A Revised Classification of Situational Crime Prevention Techniques.’’ In Crime Prevention at a Crossroads, edited by S. P. Lab. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson. Copes, Heith and J. P. Williams. 2007. ‘‘Techniques of Affirmation: Deviant Behavior, Moral Commitment, and Subcultural Identity.’’ Deviant Behavior 28:247
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310. de Fontenay, E. 1999. ‘‘The Music Industry Enters the Digital Age.’’ MP3: Digital Music for the Millenium? Tag-It, Inc., Retrieved September 24, 2001 (www.musicdish.com/survey/downloads/MP3report.pdf). De Young, M. 1988. ‘‘The Indignant Page: Techniques of Neutralization in the Publications of Paedophile Organizations.’’ Child Abuse & Neglect 12:583
591. Gopal, R. D., G. L. Sanders, S. Bhattacharjee, M. Agrawal, and S. Wagner. 2004. ‘‘A Behavioral Model of Digital Music Piracy.’’ Journal of Organizational Computing and Electronic Commerce 14:89
105. Healy, J. 2003. ‘‘4 Pay Steep Price for Free Music.’’ Los Angeles Times Retrieved May 2, 2003 (www.latimes.com/la-fi-settle2may02,0, 6007000.story). Higgins, G. E. 2005. ‘‘Can Low Self-Control Help with the Understanding of the Software Piracy Problem?’’ Deviant Behavior 26:1
24. Higgins, G. E., B. D. Fell, and A. L. Wilson. 2006. ‘‘Digital Piracy: Assessing the Contributions of an Integrated Self-Control Theory and Social Learning Theory Using Structural Equation Modeling. Criminal Justice Studies 19:3
22. Higgins, G. E. and D. A. Makin. 2004. ‘‘Does Social Learning Theory Condition the Effects of Low Self-Control on College Students’ Software Piracy?’’ Journal of Economic Crime Management 2. Hinduja, S. 2001. ‘‘Correlates of Internet Software Piracy.’’ Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 17:369
382. ———. 2003. ‘‘Trends and Patterns Among Software Pirates.’’ Ethics and Information Technology 5:49
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IFPI. 2005. ‘‘IFPI 05: Digital Music Report.’’ International Federation of the Phonographic Industry. Kievit, K. 1991. ‘‘Information Systems Majors=Non-Majors and Computer Ethics.’’ Journal of Computer Information 32:43
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104. Latonero, M. 2000. ‘‘Survey of MP3 Usage: Report on a University Consumption Community.’’ The Norman Lear Center, Annenberg School for Communication. University of Southern California, Retrieved October 5, 2001 (www.entertainment.usc.edu/publications/mp3.pdf). Liao, T. F. 2004. ‘‘Comparing Social Groups: Wald Statistics for Testing Equality among Multiple Logit Models.’’ International Journal of Comparative Sociology 45:3
16. Long, J. S. 1997. Regression Models for Categorical and Limited Dependent Variables. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Maruna, S. and H. Copes. 2005. ‘‘What Have We Learned in Five Decades of Neutralization Research?’’ Crime and Justice: A Review of Research 20:221
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886. Peace, A., D. Galletta, and J. Thong. 2003. ‘‘Software Piracy in the Workplace: A Model and Empirical Test.’’ Journal of Management Information Systems 20:153
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Immediate Community Effects.’’ Journal of Computer Information Systems 41:47
51. Read, B. 2005. ‘‘Software Industry Joins Groups Bringing Antipiracy Campaigns to Campuses.’’ The Chronicle of Higher Education Retrieved May 20, 2005 (chronicle.com/weekly/v51/i37/37a03002.htm). RIAA. 2000. ‘‘Federal Laws.’’ RIAA, Retrieved October 15, 2001 (www. riaa.com/Copyright-Laws-2.cfm). Sims, Ronald R, Hsing K Cheng, and Hildy Teegen. 1996. ‘‘Toward a Profile of Student Software Piraters.’’ Journal of Business Ethics 15:839. Solomon, S. and J. A. O’Brien. 1990. ‘‘The Effect of Demographic Factors on Attitudes toward Software Piracy.’’ Journal of Computer Information Systems 30:40
46. Stenneken, J. 1999. ‘‘MP3 Research Survey.’’ Glasgow Caledonian University, Retrieved September 28, 2001 (www.joasten.webprovider. com) Sykes, G. and D. Matza. 1957. ‘‘Techniques of Neutralization: A Theory of Delinquency.’’ American Sociological Review 22:664
670. Topalli, V. 2006. ‘‘The Seductive Nature of Autotelic Crime: How Neutralization Theory Serves as a Boundary Condition for Understanding Hardcore Street Offending.’’ Sociological Inquiry 76:475
501. Webnoize. 2000. ‘‘Napster University: From File Swapping to the Future of Entertainment.’’ Webnoize, Retrieved September 21, 2001 (research.webnoize.com). Wood, W. and R. S. Glass. 1995. ‘‘Sex as a Determinant of Software Piracy.’’ Journal of Computer Information Systems 36:37
40. Word, R. 2003. ‘‘University’s Software Kicks off Downloaders.’’ Associated Press, Retrieved November 22, 2003 (www.chron.com/cs/CDA/ ssistory.mpl/tech/news/2242112.

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.48 .35 .44 .09 .02
.03
.01 .06 .03 .04 .04
.17

1

2

.45 .45 .08 .03
.02
.04 .06 .01 .06 .04
.19

1

3

4

.31 .08 .01
.04
.01 .07 .05 .04 .03
.17

1

p < .01 (two-tailed).

1 .15 .16 .12 .17 .23 .13
.11 .00 .16 .06 .13 .13
.15

p < .05 (two-tailed),

Level of Participation Responsibility Injury=Victim Condemnation Higher Loyalty Peer Association Male Black Asian Age  21 Major Internet Speed Internet Proficiency Disapprove of MP3s

1

.08 .01
.04
.01 .04 .05 .05 .05
.18

1

5

APPENDIX A Non-Parametric Correlations (n ¼ 2,032)

1 .05
.11
.04 .13 .01 .15 .11
.11

6

1
.06 .02
.02 .18 .03 .22
.01

7

1
.08
.02 .01
.11
.12 .01

8

1
.05 .06
.06
.01
.01

9

1
.01 .19
.03
.07

10

1 .05 .13
.03

11

13

1 .10 1
.06 .01

12

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1

14

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APPENDIX B Predicted Probabilities by Neutralization Technique and Level of Acceptance for the Multinomial Logistic Model Results Level of Piracy Participation

Responsibility SD D N A SA Injury=Victim SD D N A SA Higher Loyalty SD D N A SA Condemnation SD D N A SA

No

Low

Medium

Moderate

High

.309 .263 .222 .186 .154

.099 .108 .117 .125 .133

.238 .239 .238 .234 .229

.294 .323 .352 .378 .404

.060 .066 .071 .076 .081

.267 .239 .210 .183 .156

.192 .167 .143 .121 .101

.196 .212 .225 .236 .244

.255 .297 .341 .385 .430

.090 .086 .081 .075 .069

.266 .239 .211 .185 .160

.165 .152 .138 .124 .110

.247 .246 .241 .234 .224

.288 .319 .350 .380 .406

.033 .045 .059 .078 .101

.172 .178 .185 .191 .196

.107 .114 .122 .129 .136

.270 .256 .241 .227 .213

.399 .391 .382 .372 .360

.052 .061 .071 .082 .095