Multiracial/Multiethnic Identities

Multiracial/Multiethnic  Identities   Asian American Society: An Encyclopedia. Association for Asian American Studies, Sage Publications, (2014)

 

Stephen  Murphy-­‐Shigematsu  and  James  Ong     Multiracial  and  multiethnic  individuals,  those  who  embody  biologically  and  culturally  distinct   and  separate  racial  or  ethnic  characteristics,  are  becoming  an  increasingly  visible  demographic   in  the  United  States.  In  the  2010  U.S.  Census  more  than  9  million  Americans  or  2.9%  of  the   population  identified  as  more  than  one  race.  Asians  remain  the  fastest  growing  racialized  group   in  the  United  States  and  in  many  Asian  American  communities  multiracial  and  multiethnic   individuals  are  becoming  highly  visible  with  2.6  million  of  the  17.3  million  Asians  identifying  as   Asian  plus  one  or  more  other  races.  This  increasingly  racially  and  ethnically  ambiguous  Asian-­‐ American  generation  lives  in  the  complex  intersection  of  race  and  ethnicity,  gender  and   sexuality,  citizenship  and  nationality.   Multiracial  persons  have  existed  as  the  offspring  of  some  of  the  earliest  Asian  settlers  in  the   United  States,  and  appear  in  large  numbers  from  the  1950s  as  the  children  of  American   servicemen  and  their  Asian  war  brides.  So-­‐called  Amerasians,  born  following  wars  in  Japan,   Korea,  and  Vietnam,  also  include  populations  in  Asia  and  some  who  came  to  the  U.S.  as  adults.     Transnational  multiracial  and  multiethnic  Asian  Americans  of  diverse  backgrounds  also  live  in   countries  around  the  world,  and  transnational/transracial  adoptees,  largely  from  China  and   South  Korea  might  also  be  included  under  the  term  “mixed  heritage.”     Historical  Background   Multiracial  Asian  Americans  exist  within  a  long  history  of  laws  and  social  attitudes  aimed  at   maintaining  racial  segregation  and  White  purity.  The  law  of  hypo-­‐descent,  commonly  referred   to  as  the  “one  drop  rule,”  designated  persons  with  as  little  as  1/16  racial  minority  heritage  as   nonwhite.  For  over  three  centuries  in  the  United  States,  anti-­‐miscegenation  laws  created   severe  legal  penalties  for  people  who  entered  into  interracial  relationships  and  marriages.  The   earliest  of  these  laws  prevented  African-­‐Americans  or  Native  Americans  from  marrying  white   European  Americans.  As  Asian  immigration  increased,  concerns  about  racial  purity  in  relation  to   Asians  also  increased.  In  1880  California  passed  an  anti-­‐miscegenation  law  prohibiting   marriages  between  Whites  and  Negroes,  Mulattos,  and  Mongolians.  Other  laws  discouraged   White  Americans  from  marrying  Asians,  such  as  the  Cable  Act,  which  declared  that  any   American  female  marrying  an  Asian  would  lose  her  American  citizenship.  

Early  intermarriages  were  between  Punjabi  men,  racialized  as  “Hindus,”  and  Mexican  women  in   California’s  Imperial  Valley  due  to  more  relaxed  restrictions  regarding  “non-­‐White”  racial   intimacies.  San  Diego’s  Pilipino  and  Mexican  population  enjoyed  a  similar  dynamic  as  “brown”   intermixing  was  not  seen  as  a  threat  to  “White  purity.”    However,  in  many  states,  early  Chinese   and  Japanese  Americans  were  barred  from  out-­‐marrying  until  the  end  of  WWII  when  the   gradual  repeal  of  anti-­‐miscegenation  laws  encouraged  individuals  to  venture  beyond  their   immediate  ethnic  communities.  The  1967,  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  ruled  in  Loving  vs   Virginia  that  such  laws  were  a  violation  of  the  14th  amendment  of  the  Constitution,  reflecting   changing  social  attitudes  that  are  evident  today  in  increasing  rates  of  intermarriage.   Asian  American  groups  have  seen  marked  increases  in  out-­‐marriage  with  rates  varying   considerably;  those  who  have  been  in  the  United  States  longer  and  have  larger  percentages  of   US-­‐born  intermarrying  at  higher  rates.  Japanese  Americans  in  particular  have  had  an  enormous   demographic  shift  both  because  of  war  brides  and  the  World  War  II  incarceration  on  the  West   Coast  which  dissolved  many  pre-­‐war  Japanese  communities.  According  to  recent  2010  Census   data,  Japanese  Americans  have  seen  such  a  drastic  increase  in  out-­‐marriage  rates  that  by  2020,   the  majority  of  Japanese  Americans  will  be  multi  rather  than  “monoethnic.”  While  some  believe   this  disrupts  communal  integrity,  their  existence  necessitates  a  fundamental  reinterpretation  of   what  it  means  to  be  “Japanese.”  Other  Asian  American  groups  face  similar  issues  as   intermarriage  increases.   By  examining  the  complexity  of  identity  politics  through  multiethnic  experiences,  we  can  better   understand  how  we  define  and  become  invested  in  notions  of  race,  ethnicity,  blood,  culture,   and  ancestry  at  the  micro,  mezzo,  and  macro  level.  Since  multiethnic  Asian  Americans  are   becoming  one  of  the  fastest  growing  demographics  in  the  nation,  it  is  important  for  scholars   and  community  members  to  understand  the  intricacies  of  intersectional  identities  and  embrace   their  “difference”  as  a  source  of  reflexivity  rather  than  marginal  or  outlying.   Constructing  Multiple  Identities   The  abstract  concepts  of  race  and  ethnicity  have  generally  been  confounded  as  a  single   construct,  particularly  in  research  on  identities.  Racial  and  ethnic  identity  models  developed  for   monoracial  populations  frequently  assume  that  racial  and  ethnic  identities  will  be  the  same.   However,  for  many  multiracial  people,  racial  identity  based  on  physical  appearance  and  related   understandings  and  experiences  with  race  and  racism,  and  ethnic  identity  based  on  cultural   affiliations,  traditions,  and  experiences  may  be  different.  For  example,  someone  raised  with  the   strong  influence  of  Japanese  culture  and  tradition  will  likely  identify  as  ethnically  Japanese.  But   if  he  is  rarely  seen  by  others  to  be  Asian,  he  may  be  less  likely  to  identify  racially  as  Asian.   Experiences  of  multiracial  Asian  Americans  are  often  those  of  being  not  easily  identifiable,  of  

“what  are  you”  encounters,  of  challenges  to  their  belonging  and  authenticity  from  members  of   their  own  reference  groups,  and  experiences  that  change  in  different  contexts.   Racial  and  ethnic  identities  are  created  not  only  by  individuals,  but  also  by  groups.  The  social   construction  of  identities  is  affected  by  the  meanings  of  being  Asian  American  held  by  various   groups—Asian  Americans,  white  Americans,  black  Americans,  or  other  reference  groups.  For   example,  White  European  Americans  may  see  anyone  who  looks  even  partly  Asian  as  Asian   American,  but  the  Asian  American  group  might  believe  that  a  person  has  to  look  monoracial   and  be  familiar  with  the  culture  to  be  truly  Asian  American.  Multiracial  Asian  Americans   commonly  describe  experiences  of  exclusion,  direct  questioning  or  rejection  of  one's  claimed   identity  as  Asian-­‐American,  and  encountering  discrimination  within  one's  own  reference   groups.  These  experiences  of  challenge  and  exclusion  come  from  Asian  Americans,  White   European  Americans,  and  from  other  people  of  color,  and  the  ways  in  which  different  groups   establish  criteria  for  belonging  heavily  influence  the  identities  of  multiracial  and  multiethnic   Asian  Americans.   Historically,  multiracial  individuals  have  been  labeled  officially  and  socially  by  their  minority   heritage.  More  recently,  multiracial  people  increasingly  have  increasingly  exercised  the  option   of  choosing  a  multiracial  or  identity,  on  official  forms  as  well  as  in  social  interactions.  In  the   1990s,  a  controversy  emerged  around  the  racial  classifications  that  failed  to  accommodate  “in-­‐ between  populations,”  and  skewed  the  accuracy  of  demographic  information.  The  result  was   reform  in  the  2000  Census  that  allowed  multiracial  individuals  to  check  one  or  more  boxes  and   claim  multiple  ethnic  identities.  Social  landscapes  in  Asian  American  communities  changed   dramatically  as  a  result  of  this  new  data  which  reflected  more  precisely  the  presence  of   multiethnic  individuals.  While  many  embrace  the  freedom  to  choose  a  multiracial  identity,   some  still  claim  a  monoracial/ethnic  identity,  or  a  non-­‐racial  identity,  deconstructing  race   categorizations  and  identities.   Multiracial  Asian  Americans  may  also  identify  differently  in  different  contexts.  They  may   evaluate  the  relational  context  in  which  the  question  is  asked,  considering  whether  the   questioner  is  likely  to  accept,  reject,  or  challenge  their  claim  to  a  particular  identity.  An   individual  chooses  a  situational  identity  depending  on  the  political  or  practical  advantage  or   disadvantage  of  a  particular  identity.   Influences  on  Identity  Choice  and  Developmental  Process   Numerous  factors  influence  multiracial  Asian  Americans’  choice  of  racial  and  ethnic  identities,   the  strength  of  these  identities,  and  the  ways  in  which  these  identities  are  developed.  A   family’s  guidance,  support,  communication  about  race  and  culture,  comfort  with  multiracial   identities  and  experiences,  and  familial  exposure  to  cultural  heritage  profoundly  affect  the  

racial  and  ethnic  identities  of  multiracial  Asian  Americans.  However,  there  are  numerous  social   forces  that  also  have  an  impact  on  the  developmental  process  and  identity  choices.   The  most  powerful  may  be  physical  appearance,  as  how  multiracial  Asian  Americans  are   perceived  by  others  clearly  influences  their  experiences  and  identities.  How  they  perceive  their   own  appearance  also  often  affects  their  racial  and  ethnic  identifications.  However,  phenotype   alone  does  not  consistently  predict  identity,  as  some  individuals  choose  to  identify  differently   from  their  physical  appearance.   Physical  appearance  is  usually  related  to  the  racial  background  of  the  multiracial  Asian   American.  Those  with  White  European  American  ancestry  frequently  claim  that  they  appear   racially  ambiguous  to  others,  neither  Asian  nor  White.  They  report  common  experiences  of   being  seen  as  not  Asian  American  by  Asian  Americans  and  as  not  White  by  White  European   Americans.  While  many  multiracial  Asian  white  Americans  identify  as  Asian  American  or,  for   example,  as  Chinese  American,  they  also  encounter  experiences  of  exclusion  from  Asian   American  communities.  Not  surprisingly,  they  describe  complex  feelings  of  similarity  and   difference,  belonging  and  exclusion  with  both  Asian  Americans  and  White  European  Americans.   These  social  experiences  of  acceptance  and  exclusion  from  various  communities  clearly  affect   identity  development,  with  those  choosing  White  identities  usually  isolated  from  their   Asian/Asian  American  family  and  communities.     Asian  Black  multiracial  individuals  have  a  different  experience  with  their  reference  groups   meanings.  African-­‐American  communities  have  less  emphasis  on  racial  purity  than  white  or   Asian  American  communities,  as  well  as  greater  emphasis  on  the  importance  of  claiming  African   American  identity.  Experiences  of  Asian  Black  multiracials  indicate  greater  acceptance  within   black  communities  and  stronger  exclusion  from  Asian  American  communities.  However,  many   Asian  black  multiracial  individuals  still  identify  as  both  Black  and  Asian,  though  they  may  feel   pressured  to  construct  a  public  identity  as  Black  and  a  more  private  identity  as  Asian.  The  same   may  be  true  for  others,  such  as  Asian  Latinos,  who  regardless  of  their  phenotype,  may  openly   acknowledge  their  mix  but  tend  to  publicly  identify  as  Latino.  In  contrast,  Asian  Whites  seem  to   have  more  options  and  can  choose  to  not  address  issues  of  their  mixed  identity  and  still  gain   acceptance  in  the  mainstream  society;  choose  to  subtly  or  indirectly  deal  with  issues  of  identity,   or  identify  explicitly  as  mixed  Asian  American.     A  person’s  familiarity,  exposure  to,  and  knowledge  of  ethnic  cultures  influences  how  much  the   individual  feels  cultural  similarity  to  different  groups  and  also  affects  racial  and  ethnic   identities.  However,  this  alone  does  not  consistently  predict  identity,  as  individuals  also  seek  to   empower  themselves  through  the  deliberate  acquisition  of  cultural  knowledge.  Regional   context  also  affects  identities,  as  multiracial  Asian  American  individuals  living  in  Hawaii,  where  

there  is  a  large  mixed  population  have  very  different  experiences  from  multiracial  Asian   Americans  living  in  Atlanta,  where  there  are  relatively  few  mixed  Asians.   Historical  context  and  social  climate  of  the  particular  time  in  which  a  multiracial  Asian  American   grew  up  is  another  factor  affecting  identity.  The  experience  of  multiracial  Asian  white   Americans  who  grew  up  prior  to  the  1960s  were  often  characterized  by  isolation  and  intense   rejection  from  both  Asian  and  White  communities,  whereas  those  currently  in  their  teens  and   early  adulthood  are  experiencing  greater  acceptance  and  more  identity  options.  Today,   multiracial  Asian  White  and  Asian  Black  individuals  may  choose  only  one  identity  if  given  no   other  choice,  however,  they  may  prefer  to  claim  multiple  identities.  Since  the  early  1990s,  the   increasing  numbers  of  mixed  heritage  Asian  Americans,  especially  on  the  West  Coast,  has  led  to   the  construction  of  communities  and  movements  based  around  a  mixed  Asian  American   identity,  These  communities  often  use  the  Hawaiian  term  Hapa,  though  individuals  may  identify   both  as  Hapa,  as  well  as  a  member  of  a  larger  group,  claiming  inclusion  and  authenticity.   Perspectives  and  Critical  Framings     The  perspectives  of  multiethnic  and  multiracial  individuals  are  not  only  productive  means  for   challenging  various  forms  of  racism,  their  “marginal”  experiences  also  encourage  a  wider   understanding  of  social  constructions,  structures,  and  the  underlying  dynamics  of  interpersonal   relations.  As  a  seemingly  trivial  yet  demographically  pervasive  population,  multiethnic  Asian   Americans  can  provide  a  more  encompassing  view  into  the  “Asian  American  experience”  by   analyzing  how  their  lives  both  connect  or  digress  from  mainstream  narratives.  This  insight  and   reflexivity  is  imperative  for  the  trajectory  of  Asian  American  communities  as  the  growing   number  of  out-­‐marriages  forces  a  reconceptualization  of  what  it  means  to  be  “Asian  American.”   As  our  populations  become  more  diverse,  ethnicity  and  identity  can  be  reconsidered  as   something  fluid  and  ever  changing,  contingent  on  any  number  of  internal  and  external  factors.   Rather  than  considering  them  outliers,  valuing  multiethnic  experiences  allows  a  dynamic   reframing  of  fundamental  identity  formation  processes.     The  concept  of  mixed  race  highlights  the  contested  nature  of  race  as  a  scientific  idea  which   creates,  justifies  and  maintains  social  inequalities  and  injustices  of  differential  access  to   privilege,  prestige  and  power.  Multiethnicity,  however,  is  much  less  representative  of  a  “thing”   than  a  disruption  or  dissonance  of  “innate”  categories;  that  is,  multiracial  and  multiethnic   identities  simultaneously  render  visible  existence  of  these  fixed  concepts  while  challenging   their  validity  and  salience  over  individual  identities.  Multiracial  and  multiethnic  identity,   similarly  to  singular  or  “monoethnic”  ones,  are  influenced  by  particular  micro  and  macro  factors   including  locality,  family,  generational  influence,  history,  gender,  class,  global  processes,  and   life  experiences.  It  is,  however,  the  experience  of  being  “other,”  “in  between,”  or  “not  of”  a  

specific  group  that  marks  these  individuals  as  different,  phenotype  playing  an  integral  role  in   how  one  can  be  seen  as  “in  or  out”  of  the  ethnic  group.     Multiethnic  Asians  also  challenge  definitions  of  race  and  ethnicity  that  remain  grounded  in  the   Black/White  paradigm.  Although  many  African  Americans  have  mixed  with  Caucasians,  Native   Americans,  Asian  Americans,  and  others  for  many  centuries  they  are  commonly  overlooked  as   multiethnic  people  because  of  the  racism  perpetuated  by  the  “one-­‐drop-­‐rule”  which  renders   anyone  with  part  African  ancestry  simply  as  Black.  Political  pressures  within  their  own   communities  also  make  it  difficult  for  African  Americans  to  claim  mixed  identities.  However,   while  the  mixture  of  Blacks  and  Whites  or  Whites  and  Asians  seems  quite  evident  because  of   phenotypical  visibility,  making  the  idea  of  “race  mixing”  appear  salient,  multiracial  people  can   be  a  mixture  of  any  established  group.  These  “minority-­‐minority”  multiethnics  suffer   particularly  from  racism  and  discrimination.  The  existence  of  “in-­‐between  people”  blurs   demarcations  and  distorts  the  boundaries  between  what  we  consider  as  “pure”  or   “monoethnic”  individuals,  threatening  social,  political,  economic,  and  historical  investment  in   these  seemingly  static  concepts.     The  development  of  racial  and  ethnic  identities  in  multiracial  Asian  Americans  is  a  complex   process  affected  by  social  attitudes  and  interactions  within  multiple  racial  communities.  Their   identities  are  multidimensional,  characterized  by  both  strengths  and  challenges  and  influenced   by  many  factors.  As  the  population  increases  so  does  the  need  for  greater  understanding  of   issues  of  acculturation,  prejudice,  spirituality,  family,  gender,  sexuality,  and  social  relationships.   The  boundaries  of  communities  are  expanding  and  the  meaning  of  Asian  American  is  being   challenged,  as  is  the  authority  of  self-­‐designated  gatekeepers.  To  contribute  to  inclusivity,   positive  mental  health,  and  social  justice  within  our  own  communities,  we  must  examine  our   understandings  and  shape  new  meanings.  We  can  also  help  mainstream  society  reconstruct  its   understandings  of  race  and  ethnicity  to  accommodate  the  reality  of  biracial  identity.  Our  vision   and  ideas  of  racial  and  ethnic  identities  have  to  better  encompass  multiple  and  simultaneous   identity  options,  redefining  in  more  inclusive  terms  what  it  means  to  be  Asian  American.       Further  Reading   Dariotis,  W.  and  Kina,  L.  (2013).  War  Baby,  Love  Child:  Mixed  Race  Asian  American  Art.  Seattle   WA:  University  of  Washington  Press   Fulbeck,  Kip.  (2006).  Part  Asian,  100%  Hapa.  San  Francisco:  Chronicle  Books   Murphy-­‐Shigematsu,  S.  (2012).  When  Half  is  Whole:  Multiethnic  Asian  American  Identities.   Stanford  CA:  Stanford  University  Press    

Spickard,  Paul,  R.  (1989).  Mixed  Blood:  Intermarriage  and  Ethnic  Identity  in  Twentieth  Century   America.  Madison:  University  of  Wisconsin   Suyemoto,  K.  L.  and  John  Tawa.  (2009).  Multiracial  Asian  Americans.  In  Nita  Tewari  and  Alvin  N.   Alvarez.  Asian  American  Psychology:  Current  Perspectives.  New  York:  Lawrence  Erlbaum   Associates:  381-­‐398.   Tashiro,  Cathy  J.  (2012).  Standing  on  Both  Feet:  Voices  of  Older  Mixed  Race  Americans.  Boulder   CO:  Paradigm  Publishers   Williams-­‐Leon,  T.  and  Nakashima,  C.  (2001).  The  Sum  of  Our  Parts:  Philadelphia:  Temple   University  Press