i n d u s t r i a l c r o p s a n d p r o d u c t s 2 8 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 155–161
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Moisture-dependent physical properties of Karanja (Pongamia pinnata) kernel R.C. Pradhan a , S.N. Naik a,∗ , N. Bhatnagar b , S.K. Swain a a b
Centre for Rural Development & Technology, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016, India Mechanical Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016, India
a r t i c l e
i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
The moisture-dependent physical properties are important to design post harvest equip-
Received 22 December 2007
ments of the product. The physical properties of Karanja kernel were evaluated as a function
Received in revised form
of moisture content in the range of 8.56–22.22% d.b. The average length, width, thickness
16 February 2008
and 1000 kernel mass were 25.29 mm, 15.58 mm, 7.88 mm and 1036.45 g, respectively, at
Accepted 18 February 2008
moisture content of 8.56% d.b. The geometric mean diameter and sphericity increased from 14.55 to 15.97 mm and 0.57 to 0.6 as moisture content increased from 8.56 to 22.22% d.b., respectively. In the same moisture range, the bulk density decreased from 663 to 616 kg/m3 ,
Keywords:
whereas the corresponding true density and porosity increased from 967 to 1081 kg/m3 and
Physical properties
31.44 to 43.02%, respectively. As the moisture content increased from 8.56 to 22.22% d.b., the
Karanja kernel
angle of repose and surface areas were found to increase from 27.69 to 37.33◦ and 665.74
Moisture content
to 801.63 mm2 , respectively. The static coefficient of friction of Karanja kernel increased linearly against the surfaces of three structural materials, namely plywood (28.72%), mild steel sheet (29.88%) and aluminium (18.86%) as the moisture content increased from 8.56 to 22.22% d.b. © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1.
Introduction
Self-reliance in energy is vital for overall economic development of India and other developing countries in the world. The need to search for alternative sources of energy which are renewable, safe and non polluting assumes top priority in view that fossil fuel sources are finite, are the major source of releasing sequestered carbon to atmosphere as CO2 and CO causing global warming. In addition, uncertain supplies and frequent price hikes of fossil fuels in the international market are posing serious economic threats for developing countries (Wani and Sreedevi, 2005). In the Indian context, the estimated import of crude oil may go up from 85 to 147 MMT per annum by the end of 2006–2007, correspondingly increasing the import bill from US$ 13.3 to
∗
Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 11 26591162; fax: +91 11 26591121. E-mail address:
[email protected] (S.N. Naik). 0926-6690/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2008.02.006
US$ 15.7 billion (Biofuel Report, 2003). Hence, efforts are being made to explore for alternative source of energy. Biodiesel, an alternative fuel, must be technically feasible, economically competitive, environmentally acceptable and readily available (Srivastava and Prasad, 2000). Different vegetable oils are in use in various countries for biodiesel production. United States is an exporter of edible oils hence it uses soyabean oil as a raw material for biodiesel production. Rapeseed oil is in use in European countries for biodiesel production whereas tropical countries such as Malaysia use coconut oil or palm oil for the purpose (Sharma and Singh, 2008). India, however is a net importer of edible oil, hence the emphasis is on non-edible oils from plants such as Jatropha (Jatropha curcas), Karanja (Pogamia pinnata), neem (Azadirachta indica), mahua (Madhuca indica), simarouba
156
i n d u s t r i a l c r o p s a n d p r o d u c t s 2 8 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 155–161
(Simarouba glauca), etc., which could be utilized as a source for production of oil. Among these, Karanja is an oil seed bearing tree, which is non-edible and does not find any suitable application with only 6% being utilized out of 200 million tonnes per annum (Meher et al., 2005). Karanja oil has been reported to contain furanoflavones, furanoflavonols, chromenoflavones, flavones and furanodiketones which make the oil non-edible and hence further encourages its application for biodiesel production (Sharma and Singh, 2008). India is a tropical country and offers most suitable climate for the growth of Karanja tree. P. pinnata, belongs to family Leguminasae, found almost throughout India upto an altitude of 1200 m and distributed further east wards, chiefly in the littoral regions of south-eastern Asia and Australia, East Fiji (NOVOD, 1995). The tree is considered to be a native of Western Ghats and is chiefly found along the banks of streams and rivers or near sea coast in beach and tidal forests (Bringi, 1987). It resists drought well and is moderately forest hardy and highly tolerant to salinity. It is a shade bearer and is considered to be a good tree for planting in pastures, as grass grows well in its shade. The pods are collected from April to June. The pods are dried in sun and kernels are extracted by thrashing the fruits. The natural longevity of seeds is 6 months (NOVOD, 1995). In dry fruits, the shell and kernel are 4.5 and 95.5%, respectively. The composition of a sample of air dried kernels are, moisture 19%, oil 27.5, protein 17.4%, starch 6.6%, crude fibre 7.3% and ash 2.3% (Bringi, 1987; NOVOD, 1995). The kernels are extracted in ghani (18–22% yield) and in expeller (24–27.5% yield). The yield of kernels per tree is reported between 8 and 24 kg and oil contents various from 30 to 40% (Lakshmikanthan, 1978; Bringi, 1987). The kernels also contain mucilage (13.5%) and traces of essential oil. In addition, a complex amino acid glabrin is also present. Four furan flavones namely Karanjin, Pongapin, Kanjone, ponglabrone and diketone pongamol have been isolated from the seeds (Bringi, 1987; NOVOD, 1995). In the process of extracting the Karanja oil and its derivatives, the kernels undergo a series of unit operations. Knowledge of the physical properties and their dependence on the moisture content of Karanja kernel is essential to facilitate and improve the design of the equipment for harvesting, processing, oil extraction and storage of the kernels. Various types of cleaning, grading, separation, oil extraction equipment are designed on the basis of the physical properties of kernels. Review of the literature has revealed that various researches have been conducted on anti-nutritional properties and preparation of biodiesel from Karanja (Yadav et al., 2004; Meher et al., 2005; Sharma and Singh, 2007; Srivastava and Verma, 2008; Vinay and Sindhu Kanya, 2008). However, detailed measurements of the principal dimensions and the variation of physical properties of Karanja kernel at various levels of moisture content have not been investigated. In this communication an effort has been made to determine some moisture-dependent, physical properties of Karanja kernel, namely, linear dimensions, size, sphericity, surface area, 1000 kernel mass weight, bulk density, true density, porosity, angle of repose and static coefficient of friction in the moisture range of 8.56–22.22% d.b.
2.
Materials and methods
Karanja fruits were procured from a group of plants in IIT campus, New Delhi, India. The fruits were sun dried and kernels are extracted by thrashing the fruits with the help of hammer for the study. The kernel samples were cleaned manually to remove all foreign materials such as dust, dirt, small branches and immature kernels. The cleaned and graded kernels were sun dried and the initial moisture content of kernel was determined by using the standard hot air oven method at 105 ± 1 ◦ C ¨ for 24 h (Brusewitz, 1975; Gupta and Das, 1997; Ozarslan, 2002; Altuntas¸ et al., 2005; Cos¸kun et al., 2005). The initial moisture content of the kernel was 8.56% d.b. Samples were moistened with a calculated quantity of water by using the following Eq. (1) and conditioned to raise their moisture content to the desired six different levels (Cos¸kun et al., 2005): Wi (Mf − Mi ) 100 − Mf
Q=
(1)
where Q is the mass of water added, kg, Wi is the initial mass of the sample in kg, Mi is the initial moisture content of the sample in d.b.% and Mf is the final moisture content of the sample in d.b.%. A pre-determined quantity of tap water was added to the kernel sub-lot of 2.5 kg and was thoroughly mixed. These rewetted samples were then poured in high molecular highdensity polyethylene bags of 100 m thickness and the bags sealed tightly. The samples were kept at 5 ◦ C in a refrigerator for a week to enable the moisture to distribute uniformly throughout the sample. Before starting the tests, the required quantities of the samples were taken out of the refrigerator and allowed to warm to room temperature for about 2 h. All the physical properties of the kernel were assessed at moisture levels of 8.56, 11.29, 14.02, 16.76, 19.48 and 22.22% d.b. The rewetting technique to attain the desired moisture content in kernel and grain has frequently been used (Nimkar and Chattopadhyay, 2001; Sacilik et al., 2003; Cos¸kun et al., 2005; Garnayak et al., 2008). For each moisture content, the length, width and thickness of materials were measured by a vernier calliper (Mitutoyo, Japan) with an accuracy of 0.02 mm. The average diameter of kernel was calculated by using the arithmetic mean and geometric mean of the three axial dimensions. The arithmetic mean diameter, Da and geometric mean diameter, Dg of the kernel were calculated by using the following relationships (Mohsenin, 1970):
Da =
L+W+T 3
Dg = (LWT)
1/3
(2)
(3)
The sphericity , of Karanja kernel was calculated by using the following relationship (Mohsenin, 1970):
=
(LWT) L
1/3
(4)
i n d u s t r i a l c r o p s a n d p r o d u c t s 2 8 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 155–161
where L is the length, W is the width and T is the thickness, all in mm. The 1000 kernel mass was determined by means of a digital electronic balance (Shimadzu Corporation, Japan, AY120) having an accuracy of 0.001 g. To evaluate the 1000 kernel mass, 30 randomly selected kernels from the bulk sample were averaged. The surface area of Karanja kernel was found by analogy with a sphere of the same geometric mean diameter, using the following relationship (Sacilik et al., 2003; Tunde-Akintunde and Akintunde, 2004; Altuntas¸ et al., 2005; Garnayak et al., 2008): S = D2g
(5)
where S is the surface area in mm2 . The bulk density was determined by filling a cylindrical container of 500 ml volume with the kernel a height of 150 mm at a constant rate and then weighing the contents (Gupta and Das, 1997; Garnayak et al., 2008). No separate manual compaction of kernels was done. The bulk density was calculated from the mass of the kernels and the volume of the container. The true density defined as the ratio between the mass of Karanja kernel and the true volume of the kernel, was determined using the toluene (C7 H8 ) displacement method. Toluene was used in place of water because it is absorbed by kernels to a lesser extent. The volume of toluene displaced was found by immersing a weighted quantity of Karanja kernel in the measured toluene (Sacilik et al., 2003; Garnayak et al., 2008). The porosity of bulk kernel was calculated from bulk and true densities using the relationship (Mohsenin, 1970) as follows: ε=
1−
b t
× 100
(6)
where ε is the porosity in %, b is the bulk density in kg/m3 and t is the true density in kg/m3 . The angle of repose was determined by using an openended cylinder of 15 cm diameter and 50 cm height. The cylinder was placed at the centre of a circular plate having a diameter of 70 cm and was filled with Karanja kernel. The cylinder was raised slowly until it formed a cone on the circular plate. The height of the cone was recorded by using a moveable pointer fixed on a stand having a scale of 0–1 cm precision. The angle of repose was calculated using the formula: = tan−1
2H D
157
the adjustable tilting surface. The box was raised slightly so as not to touch the surface. The structural surface with the box resting on it was inclined gradually with a screw device (screw pitch 1.4 mm), until the cylinder just started to slide down and the angle of tilt was read from a graduated scale (Fraser et al., 1978; Shepherd and Bhardwaj, 1986; Dutta et al., 1988; Nimkar et al., 2005; Garnayak et al., 2008). The coefficient of friction was calculated from the following relationship: = tan˛
(8)
where is the coefficient of friction and ˛ is the angle of tilt (◦ ). The average size of the kernel, 100 kernels were randomly chosen and the other physical properties of the kernels were determined at six moisture (from 8.56 to 22.22% d.b.) content with 10 replications at each moisture content level, and the results obtained were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and DUNCAN test using SPSS 10.0 software and analysis of regression using Microsoft Excel.
3.
Results and discussion
3.1.
Kernel dimensions
Average values of the three principal dimensions of Karanja kernel, viz., length, width and thickness determined in this study at different moisture contents are presented in Table 1. Each principal dimension appeared to be linearly dependent on the moisture content as shown in Fig. 1. Very high correlation was observed between the three principal dimensions and moisture content indicating that upon moisture absorption, the Karanja kernel expands in length, width and thickness within the moisture range of 8.56 to 22.22% d.b. The mean dimensions of 100 kernels measured at a moisture content of 8.56% d.b. are: length 25.29 ± 0.97 mm, width 15.58 ± 0.29 mm and thickness 7.88 ± 0.65 mm. Differences of between values are statistically important at P < 0.05. The average diameter calculated by the arithmetic mean and geometric mean are also presented in Table 1. The average
(7)
where H is the height of the cone in cm and D is the diameter of cone in cm. Other researchers have also used this method (Fraser et al., 1978; Joshi et al., 1993; Kaleemullah and Gunasekar, 2002; Sacilik et al., 2003; Karababa, 2006; Garnayak et al., 2008). The static coefficient of friction, , of Karanja kernel was determined on three different materials, namely, plywood, aluminium and mild steel sheet. The tilting platform of 350 mm × 120 mm was fabricated and used for experimentation. An open-ended plastic cylinder having 65 mm diameter and 40 mm height was filled with the kernel and placed on
Fig. 1 – Variation of principal dimensions and geometric mean diameter of Karanja kernel with moisture content. (♦) Length; () width; (×) geometric mean diameter; () thickness.
158
1036.45 a (16.26) 1329.58 b (13.24) 1355.26 c (13.02) 1398.16 d (15.46) 1446.41 de (11.44) 1637.65 e (12.56) 27.69 a (5.36) 30.43 b (3.49) 31.95 c (3.25) 33.05 cd (5.08) 34.01 d (4.37) 37.33 de (3.12)
3.2.
663 a (5.45) 651 b (3.67) 645 bc (3.86) 639 cd (6.34) 635 de (5.20) 616 e (4.54) 25.29 a (0.97) 25.68 ab (0.65) 25.79 b (1.02) 25.98 bc (0.94) 26.08 d (0.87) 26.39 e (0.36) 8.56 11.29 14.02 16.76 19.48 22.22
Kernel mass
The 1000 kernel mass of Karanja kernel, M1000 in grams increased from 1036.45 to 1637.65 g (P < 0.05) as the moisture content (M) increased from 8.56 to 22.22% d.b. (Table 1). The linear equation for 1000 kernel mass can be formulated to be: Figures in parenthesis are standard deviation. Values in the same columns followed by different letters (a–e) are significant (P < 0.05).
665.74 a (22.35) 689.64 b (19.66) 710.54 c (26.48) 746.09 d (22.87) 776.17 de (27.25) 801.63 e (25.61) 0.57 a (0.01) 0.58 b (0.05) 0.58 b (0.01) 0.59 c (0.08) 0.60 d (0.03) 0.60 d (0.11) 16.25 a (0.58) 16.49 a (0.65) 16.66 ab (0.36) 16.93 c (0.25) 17.14 d (0.97) 17.38 e (0.76) 7.88 a (0.65) 8.16 ab (0.87) 8.42 b (0.53) 8.95 bc (0.35) 9.41 cd (0.38) 9.69 d (0.58)
14.55 a (0.34) 14.81 b (0.58) 15.04 bc (0.21) 15.41 bc (0.86) 15.71 c (0.54) 15.97 d (0.36)
mean, Dg mean, Da
15.58 a (0.29) 15.63 b (0.86) 15.77 bc (0.94) 15.85 c (0.66) 15.95 cd (0.86) 16.04 d (0.96)
Geometric Arithmetic Thickness,
T W
Width, d.b.%
Length,
Axial dimensions (mm) content,
Moisture
L
(mm2 )
(kg/m3 )
Surface area
decimal (mm)
Average diameters
Sphericity,
Bulk density
3.3.
Table 1 – Physical properties of Karanja kernel at different moisture content
Sphericity
The values of sphericity were calculated individually with Eq. (4) by using the data on geometric mean diameter and the major axis of the kernel and the results obtained are presented in Table 1. It is seen that the kernel has mean values of sphericity ranging from 0.57 to 0.60. Bal and Mishra (1988) and Dutta et al. (1988) considered the grain as spherical when the sphericity value was more than 0.80 and 0.70, respectively. In this study, Karanja kernel should not be treated as an equivalent sphere for calculation of the surface area.
31.44 a (0.36) 34.57 a (1.21) 36.83 b (0.54) 39.26 bc (0.64) 40.26 bc (0.75) 43.02 c (0.43)
Kernel
diameters increased with the increased in moisture content as axial dimensions. The arithmetic and geometric mean diameter ranged from 16.25 to 17.38 mm and 14.55 to 15.97 mm as the moisture content increased from 8.56 to 22.22% d.b., respectively (P < 0.05).
967 a (2.01) 995 ab (4.51) 1021 b (8.43) 1052 bc (5.86) 1063 c (6.29) 1081 d (4.05)
(kg/m3 )
True density,
Porosity (%)
Angle of
repose (◦ )
mass (g)
i n d u s t r i a l c r o p s a n d p r o d u c t s 2 8 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 155–161
M1000 = 820.09 + 35.55M with a value for the coefficient of determination R2 of 0.86. A similar increasing trend has been reported for neem, sugarbeet seeds, kidney bean grain, pea seeds, black-eyed pea seeds, faba bean grains and Jatropha seed (Visvanathan et al., 1996; Kasap and Altuntas¸, 2006; Altuntas¸ and Demirtola, 2007; Altuntas¸ and Yıldız, 2007; Garnayak et al., 2008).
3.4.
Surface area
The surface area of the kernel was calculated by using Eq. (5). As seen from the Table 1, the surface area of Karanja kernel increases linearly from 665.74 to 801.63 mm2 (statistically important at P < 0.05) when the moisture content increased from 8.56 to 22.22% d.b. The variation of moisture content (M) and surface area (S) can be expressed mathematically as follows: S = 574.78 + 10.19M with a value for R2 of 0.99. A similar trend has been reported for linseed, red kidney bean grains and for Jatropha seed (Selvi et al., 2006; Is¸ik and ¨ Unal, 2007; Garnayak et al., 2008).
3.5.
Bulk density
The kernel bulk density at different moisture levels varied from 663 to 616 kg/m3 (P < 0.05) (Fig. 2) and indicated a decrease in bulk density with an increase in moisture content from 8.56 to 22.22% d.b. This was due to the fact that an increase in mass owing to moisture gain in the sample was lower than accompanying volumetric expansion of the bulk. The negative linear relationship of bulk density with moisture content was also
i n d u s t r i a l c r o p s a n d p r o d u c t s 2 8 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 155–161
159
upon moisture content is shown in Fig. 2. The porosity was found to increase linearly from 31.44 to 43.02% (P < 0.05) in the specified moisture levels. The porosity value is often needed in air flow and heat flow studies. The relationship between porosity (ε) value and the moisture content (M) of the kernel was obtained as: ε = 25.105 + 0.81M
Fig. 2 – Variation of bulk density, true density and porosity of Karanja kernel with moisture content. () True density; (♦) bulk density; () porosity.
with a value for R2 of 0.98. ¨ Is¸ik and Unal (2007) for red kidney bean grains and Garnayak et al. (2008) for Jatropha seed stated that as the moisture content increased, the porosity value also increased but Visvanathan et al. (1996) and Altuntas¸ and Demirtola (2007) reported a decreasing trend for neem and black-eyed peas seeds.
3.8. observed by various other research workers (Shepherd and Bhardwaj, 1986; Dutta et al., 1988; Gupta and Prakash, 1990; Carman, 1996; Garnayak et al., 2008). The bulk density (b ) of kernel was found to have the following linear relationship with moisture content (M): b = 688.02 − 3.02M with a value for R2 of 0.94. A similar decreasing trend in bulk density has been reported by Visvanathan et al. (1996) for neem, Altuntas¸ and Demirtola (2007) for some legumes seeds, Altuntas¸ and Yıldız (2007) for faba bean grains and Garnayak et al. (2008) for Jatropha seed.
3.6.
True density
A plot of experimentally obtained values of true density against moisture content (Fig. 2) indicated an increased (P < 0.05) in true density with an increase in moisture content in the specific moisture range. The increase in true density varies with increase in moisture content might be attributed to the relatively lower true volume as compared to the corresponding mass of the kernel attained due to adsorption of water. The densities values of kernel are used in design of storage bins and silos, separation of desirable materials from impurities, cleaning and grading and quality evaluation of the products. The moisture (M) dependence of the true density (t ) was described by a linear equation as follows: t = 900.26 + 8.42M with a value for R2 of 0.97. Although the results were similar to those reported by ¨ Yalc¸ın and Ozarslan (2004) for vetch seed, Altuntas¸ and Yıldız (2007) for faba bean grains and Garnayak et al. (2008) for Jatropha seed, a different trend was reported by Altuntas¸ and Demirtola (2007) for some legumes seeds and Cetin (2007) for barbunia.
3.7.
Porosity
Porosity was evaluated using mean values of bulk density and true density in Eq. (6). The variation of porosity depending
Angle of repose
The angle of repose is an indicator of the product’s ability to flow. The experimental results for the angle of repose with respect to moisture content are shown in Table 1. The values were found to increase from 27.69◦ to 37.33◦ (P < 0.05) in the moisture range of 8.56–22.22% d.b. This increasing trend of angle of repose with moisture content occurs because surface layer of moisture surrounding the particle hold the aggregate of kernel together by the surface tension. The values of the angle of repose () for Karanja kernel bear the following relationship with its moisture content (M): = 22.747 + 0.63M with a value for R2 of 0.96. These results were similar to those reported for neem, sugarbeet seeds, faba bean grains and Jatropha seed (Visvanathan et al., 1996; Kasap and Altuntas¸, 2006; Altuntas¸ and Yıldız, 2007; Garnayak et al., 2008).
3.9.
Static coefficient of friction
The static coefficients of friction of Karanja kernel on three surfaces (plywood, aluminum and mild steel sheet) against moisture content in the range of 8.56–22.22% d.b. are presented in Fig. 3. It is observed that the static coefficient of friction increased linearly with increase in moisture content for all contact surfaces. The reason for the increased friction coefficient at higher moisture content may be owing to the water present in the kernel offering a cohesive force on the surface of contact. Increases of 28.72, 29.88 and 18.86% were recorded in the case of plywood, mild steel and aluminum, respectively, as the moisture content increased from 8.56 to 22.22% d.b. The static coefficient of friction is important for designing of storage bins, hoppers, pneumatic conveying system, screw conveyors, forage harvesters, threshers, etc. (Sahay and Singh, 1996). At all moisture content, the maximum friction was offered by plywood, followed by mild steel and aluminum surface. The least static coefficient of friction may be owing to smoother and more polished surface of the aluminum sheet than the other materials used. Plywood also offered the maximum friction for pigeon pea, gram, rape seed, neem and Jatropha seed and the coefficient of friction increased with the moisture content (Shepherd and Bhardwaj,
160
i n d u s t r i a l c r o p s a n d p r o d u c t s 2 8 ( 2 0 0 8 ) 155–161
Acknowledgements Funding for this research was provided by the National Oilseed and Vegetable oils Development (NOVOD) Board, Gurgaon, Delhi (India). The authors are grateful to Dr. A.P. Sivastava, Principal scientist, Indian Agricultual Research Institute, New Delhi, for providing facilities in their laboratory for some experiment.
references
Fig. 3 – Effect of moisture content on static coefficient of friction of Karanja kernel against various surfaces.
1986; Dutta et al., 1988; Kulkelko et al., 1988; Visvanathan et al., 1996; Garnayak et al., 2008). The relationships between static coefficient of friction () and moisture content (M) on plywood (wd), aluminum (al) and mild steel (ms) can be represented by the following equations: wd = 0.761 + 0.02M
al = 0.760 + 0.01M
ms = 0.711 + 0.02M
4.
(R2 = 0.90)
(R2 = 0.98)
(R2 = 0.85)
Conclusions
The following conclusions are drawn from the investigation on moisture-dependent physical properties of Karanja kernel in the moisture content ranging from 8.56 to 22.22% d.b. The average length, width, thickness of Karanja kernel ranged from 25.29 to 26.39, 15.58 to 16.04 and 7.88 to 9.69 mm, respectively, as moisture content increased from 8.56 to 22.22% d.b. 1000 kernel mass and surface area of Karanja kernel increased from 1036.45 to 1637.65 g and 665.74 to 801.63 mm2 with increase in moisture content, respectively. The geometric mean diameter and sphericity were found to increase from 14.55 to 15.97 mm and 0.57 to 0.60, respectively, in the moisture range of 8.56 to 22.22% d.b. The bulk density decreased from 663 to 616 kg/m3 and true density increased from 967 to 1081 kg/m3 , while the porosity was also increased from 31.44 to 43.02% as the moisture content increased from of 8.56 to 22.22% d.b. The angle of repose increased from 27.69◦ to 37.33◦ as the moisture content increased from 8.56 to 22.22% d.b. The static coefficient of friction increased for all three surfaces, namely, plywood (0.94–1.21, 28.72%), mild steel (0.87–1.13, 29.88%) and aluminum (0.84–0.99, 18.86%) as the moisture content increased from of 8.56 to 22.22% d.b. Differences of between all values are statistically important at P < 0.05.
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