Mental preparation strategies of elite modern pentathletes

Psychology of Sport and Exercise 10 (2009) 244–254

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Psychology of Sport and Exercise journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/psychsport

Mental preparation strategies of elite modern pentathletes Maurizio Bertollo a, Beatrice Saltarelli b, Claudio Robazza c, * a

` di Scienze dell’Educazione Motoria, Universita ` di Chieti, Italy Dipartimento di Scienze Mediche di Base ed Applicate, Istituto Interuniversitario di Miologia, Facolta ` Pontificia Salesiana, Facolta ` di Scienze dell’Educazione, Roma, Italy Scuola Superiore Internazionale di Scienze della Formazione, Venezia-Mestre, Universita c ` di Scienze dell’Educazione Motoria, Universita ` di Chieti, Viale Abruzzo, 322, 66013 Chieti, Italy Dipartimento di Scienze del Movimento Umano, Facolta b

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 4 April 2007 Received in revised form 26 July 2008 Accepted 9 September 2008 Available online 19 September 2008

Objectives: This study examined the repertoire of preparation strategies and coping responses that elite modern pentathletes display across pre-, during, and post-competition periods.

Keywords: Mental practice Idiosyncratic strategies Coping responses Pentathlon

Methods: Six women and eight men were interviewed using an in-depth, open-ended, and semistructured approach. The qualitative data were then hierarchically content analysed. Results: The findings revealed that perseverance, consistency, and commitment during training were critical components of the athletes’ preparation in the days preceding an event. The athletes also presented a range of mental and technical preparation strategies across the competitive phases. These included, among others, competition simulation, mental practice, goal setting, emotion control, behavioural routines, specific technical strategies, attentional strategies, reaction to mistakes, and postcompetition self-assessment. In addition, athletes’ negative expectations during competition emerged as potential threats to personal achievements and were associated with dysfunctional bodily symptoms related to emotions, attentional difficulties, and coping problems. Conclusions: The practical implications of these findings are discussed focusing on individual differences in cognitive and emotional experiences, and pre-, during, and post-competition strategies. Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction Much of the sport psychology research over the last decades has investigated the cognitive and emotional factors associated with athletic achievements in an attempt to identify the personality characteristics of skilled athletes and the mental preparation strategies they use to perform successfully. Mahoney and Avener (1977) conducted one of the earliest investigations in the area, studying the 1976 USA Olympic qualifiers and non-qualifiers in men’s gymnastics. They found that the finalists who were better able to control anxiety and recover from competitive mistakes, had higher selfconfidence, had more positive than negative self-talk, and used imagery of an internal rather than external nature. Using a different approach, Morgan (1980) studied the personality characteristics of national and Olympic runners, rowers, and wrestlers through the Profile of Mood States (McNair, Lorr, & Droppleman, 1971). More successful athletes exhibited a greater positive mental health profile typified by larger scores of vigour and lower scores in such negative moods as tension, depression, anger, fatigue, and confusion. Following the earlier approaches, researchers have developed sport-specific questionnaires to gauge the psychological skills of

* Corresponding author. Tel./fax: þ39 (0) 85 445 2072. E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Robazza). 1469-0292/$ – see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2008.09.003

athletes across different competitive standards and sports (e.g., Thomas, Murphy, & Hardy, 1999). Research findings have found that elite and successful athletes are more committed, motivated, selfconfident, focused, and able to cope with adversity, and peak under pressure. They also consistently reported the use of psychological skills that appear to underlie these factors, including imagery, focusing, anxiety control, positive self-talk, and goal setting. Many other investigators have examined psychological variables and skills underlying peak performance mainly through qualitative interviews or both questionnaires and interviews (e.g., DurandBush & Salmela, 2002; Gould, Dieffenbach, & Moffett, 2002; Gould, Eklund, & Jackson, 1992a, 1992b; Orlick & Partington, 1988). Contemporary researchers have advocated the use of qualitative techniques to obtain a detailed description of the athletes’ perceptions and experiences. For example, in an extensive investigation of Canadian Olympic athletes Orlick and Partington (1988) collected interview and questionnaire data to identify psychological factors linked to optimal readiness and success. Common variables and mental skills typifying the successful athletes included total commitment to pursuing excellence, setting practice goals, competition simulation, mental imagery, focusing and coping with distractions, detailed competition plans, positive thoughts, and post-competition evaluations. After an extensive review of the psychological characteristics of peak performance, Krane and Williams (2006) concluded that

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athletes use a wide array of cognitive and behavioural skills and strategies for their best achievements, including imagery, welldeveloped competitive plans, goal setting, well-learned coping skills, thought control, arousal management, emotional control, attention control and refocusing. To become successful, the athlete needs to be committed, dedicated, motivated, mentally tough, and able to pursue achievement goals in a rational way. All these attributes may be developed or improved by using psychological skills. Low-proficient athletes may be helped to learn, refine, and practice mental skills and strategies aimed at gaining personal control of debilitative states and improving psychophysical conditions that facilitate performance. To this purpose, sport psychology consultants have developed and applied an impressive number of mental training programs across a range of individual and team sports (see Dosil, 2006). The sport psychologists’ interest in mental training programs has also been reflected over the years in reviews of the literature (e.g., Greenspan & Feltz, 1989; Murphy & Martin, 2002) and many handbooks (e.g., Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996; Nideffer, 1992). Research has indicated that individualised mental training programs are more effective than standardised, non-individualised packages (e.g., Seabourne, Weinberg, Jackson, & Suinn, 1985). Athletes, indeed, tend to adopt personal pre-competition and competition strategies to deal with performance requirements and competitive pressure. Elite level performers can develop psychological skills in formal settings when, for example, they decide to undertake sport psychology consultancy, or in informal ways through the influence of significant persons, such as coaches, teammates, support staff, parents, and teachers (Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Gould et al., 2002). Thus, consultants should examine carefully the mental preparation procedures of the athlete and the idiosyncratic nature of the competitive experience. It is crucial to gain a full understanding of the athlete’s needs as well as the physical, technical, and mental requirements of a sport before an intervention takes place (Weinberg & Williams, 2006). Qualitative interviews can provide the applied sport psychologist with comprehensive and specific information about the athlete and his or her performance demands (Gould et al., 1992a, 1992b; Orlick & Partington, 1988). Practitioners can use this body of knowledge to plan, implement, and optimise psychological treatments, thereby helping experienced performers and beginners achieve their best. The purpose of the present study was to examine the repertoire of preparation strategies and coping responses of elite modern pentathletes. The authors were requested to provide sport psychology consultancy to the Italian squad in preparation for the 2004 (Athens) Olympic Games. Hence, they have had an excellent opportunity to investigate the idiosyncratic procedures an outstanding sample of athletes adopted while preparing for the most important event of their careers. As discussed above, there is ample evidence that expert performers have developed over their careers a variety of idiosyncratic mental preparation strategies to cope with competitive demands (e.g., goal setting, arousal regulation, imagery, focusing, self-talk). We expected to find a range of idiosyncratic procedures also in our sample of pentathletes. However, to the best of our knowledge no study has investigated the psychological preparation of top level modern pentathletes. Therefore, we tried to examine the mental preparation strategies and behaviours these athletes usually adopt in the days preceding an important event, just before the event, during competition, and after competition. From an applied perspective, our objective was to design individualised programs intended to enhance the athletes’ self-regulation strategies prior to, during, and after competition. We directed attention toward psychological and behavioural strengths and weaknesses of athletes when facing performance events, in the effort to target individual needs. Hence,

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this exploratory phase was instrumental for the subsequent development and implementation of structured, systematic, and individualised mental training programs. It is our hope that the results of this study can help sport psychologists be better equipped in providing services to athletes, especially when involved with modern pentathletes. Method Participants The sample consisted of 14 athletes, six women and eight men, who ranged in age from 21 to 33 years (M ¼ 27.43, SD ¼ 3.08). At the time of the study (i.e., year 2004), the sample represented the whole Italian modern pentathlete national team. Most of the athletes had taken part in several major international championships, including the World Cup, the European Championships, the World Championships, and the Olympic Games. They had on average 8 years (SD ¼ 3.08) of senior international experience. No participants reported receiving any formal intervention from a sport psychology consultant although some of them indicated they received some information about psychological preparation from their coach. The general purpose of the investigation was explained to the head coach and then to the athletes to ensure their participation in the study. Specifically, it was made clear that the information obtained through the interview process was fundamental for psychological counselling and the development of individualised mental preparation strategies. A male athlete decided not to participate and therefore he was excluded from the study and subsequent intervention. Modern pentathlon The modern pentathlon competition consists of five events completed in one exhausting day. Contenders earn points for their performances on pistol shooting (10-m air pistol shots at a stationary target), e´pe´e fencing (a series of one-touch bouts against every other competitor), swimming (a free-style race over 200 m), riding (equestrian show jumping on a hurdle course with horses provided by the organisers), and cross-country running (over a distance of 3 km). The leading competitor with the highest total points obtained in the first four events is first in the starting order for the final event. The intervals between that competitor and those who follow are determined by the point differences among them. Owing to this handicapping system, the first athlete who crosses the line at the end of the cross-country run is the winner and subsequent competitors are ranked with respect to their order of arrival. Interview guide The interview was seen as an important method of gaining insights into idiosyncratic preparation strategies. The interview was based on a series of open-ended questions. An interview guide was developed to fully investigate the research questions, standardise and facilitate the acquisition of qualitative data, and minimise biases. This guide was based on issues identified by the authors after extensive consultation with elite pentathletes not involved in the study and their coaches. Once the interview questions were identified, two external sport psychology consultants independently provided their feedback to improve the guide. The interview focused on mental preparation strategies and behaviours usually adopted in the days of the week before an important event (such as the Italian, European, and word championships), the hour preceding the competition, and during the competition (e.g., preparation routines, mental rehearsal, self-regulation, emotion

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control, focusing, and reaction to difficulties). The core question was the following: ‘‘We are trying to identify the main strategies athletes apply in preparation for and during competition. Would you tell me what mental preparation strategies and behaviours you usually adopt in the days preceding an important competition?’’ The same question was asked in relation to mental preparation strategies and behaviours adopted just before the event, during competition, and after competition. Probes used for clarification and to obtain specific details were in the form: ‘‘What routines do you follow to prepare yourself?’’ ‘‘Do you attempt to control your autonomic responses, such as heart rate and breathing, before or during an event?’’ ‘‘Do you mentally rehearse your performance?’’ ‘‘How do you get focused and cope with distractions?’’ ‘‘How do you react emotionally?’’ ‘‘Do you analyse your performance after its execution?’’ ‘‘What are your strengths and what are your weaknesses?’’ Further probes were used for clarification (e.g., ‘‘I’m not sure exactly what you mean, could you please go over that again?’’), elaboration (e.g., ‘‘Could you please explain that in more detail?’’), and general (e.g., ‘‘What effect did that have?’’) to ensure consistent responses in terms of depth and complexity (Patton, 1990). Procedure All interviews were conducted during the competitive season far from important competitions in preparation for the impending 2004 Olympic Games. The athletes were met at their training complexes and interviews were conducted in a secluded room. The general scope of the study was explained to the athlete prior to the start of the interview. Emphasis was placed on the potential benefits deriving from an introspective analysis of an individual’s strategies, strengths, and weaknesses. Athletes were informed that their participation was voluntary and they were assured of the complete confidentiality and anonymity of their remarks. All participants provided written informed consent and were then involved in semi-structured, face-to-face individual interviews lasting 60–90 min. All interviews were tape recorded and conducted by the same individual who was trained in qualitative research methodology and knowledgeable about sport psychology consultancy. Two investigators were present for every interview. One of them conducted the interview, while the other was involved as observer to pay attention to, and take note of, the participant’s involvement in the interview process as well as emotional reactions, nonverbal communication patterns, main contentions, or any other information deemed helpful for data analysis. Despite the interview guide, the order and content of questions varied with the flow of the discussion to enable the examination of relevant issues. The flow of the interview was thereby made flexible and consisted of a set of evolving questions (Patton, 1990; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). At the end of the session, interviewees were asked whether there was anything else they could add to the issues discussed. Data analysis The interview data were subjected to hierarchical content analysis following the procedure outlined by Scanlan, Ravizza, and Stein (1989) and then employed by several researchers (e.g., Eklund, 1996; Gould et al., 1992a, 1992b). This procedure attempts to provide reliability, credibility, and trustworthiness to the qualitative data (Patton, 1990). According to Bradley (1993), predefined constructs can shape the research process and thereby be used as a basis for categorisation in analysing qualitative data. Guidance for identifying meaningful units may come from predetermined, more or less explicit frameworks. Therefore, in the qualitative content analysis procedures employed in the present study, the structural

framework derived from the time frame (i.e., from pre-competition to post-competition) and the massive body of knowledge surrounding mental preparation strategies (e.g., Dosil, 2006; Williams, 2006) were used as a guide to data categorisation. The procedure involved interview transcripts being carefully read and re-read independently by the authors to gain an overall sense of the athlete’s experience. The data were then independently categorised by the investigators based on mental preparation strategies and behaviours the days preceding the event, pre-competition, during competition, and post-competition. Specifically, the preparation and analysis of interview data progressed in the following steps: 1. All tape-recorded interviews were transcribed verbatim, which resulted in 220 pages of single-spaced text. Researchers gave participants a copy of their transcripts for member-checking purposes (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Ten participants confirmed that their transcripts were accurate representations of their experience and four provided feedback to clarify or expand on a few aspects of their interview. All participants’ comments were integrated into the data set for analysis. 2. The two investigators who were present at the interview read and re-read all transcripts until they became completely familiar with each participant. 3. Independently, each investigator identified raw data themes (quotes or paraphrased quotes that captured the major ideas conveyed) characterising each interviewee’s responses within each subsection of the interview (i.e., mental preparation strategies and behaviours the days preceding the event, precompetition, during competition, and post-competition). The raw data were appropriately tagged to obtain a set of concepts representative of the information included in the interview transcripts. Idiographic profiles or summary abstracts of each pentathlete were also developed. Through extensive discussion, agreement was obtained on all raw data themes characterising each athlete’s responses as well as on the idiographic profiles. Agreement between the two investigators was made easier because they both participated in the interviews. 4. The investigators independently grouped the raw data themes into meaningful categories that seemed to fit together. This analysis resulted in a grouping of raw data themes within categories of greater generality (sub-themes). These themes were subsequently classified into larger, more inclusively meaningful groupings (higher-order themes and general dimensions), with each given a title that was deemed to represent the themes contained within each category. Consensus was again reached at all levels of analysis. 5. The raw data themes and groupings were examined thoroughly. The investigators went back to the original transcripts and verified that all themes and categories were represented. 6. Finally, a third investigator who was not present at the interview but had experience in qualitative research also reviewed the analyses. Results and discussion Because of the length of each interview, it was not possible to report all the content and information obtained. Therefore, only representative interview quotes were selected for the purpose of the study. Result presentation and discussion is arranged according to the time frame from pre-competition to post-competition, including mental preparation strategies and behaviours the athletes adopted in the days preceding the event, just prior to competition, during competition, and post-competition. Difficulties encountered during competition are also examined and discussed.

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Preparation strategies the days before the event The hierarchical content analysis of mental preparation strategies and behaviours the athletes adopted in the days preceding the event yielded 128 raw data responses. Similar raw data responses were grouped into 21 sub-themes, and similar sub-themes were grouped into 14 higher-order themes. Related higher-order themes were combined into six general dimensions: (1) Attitudes during training; (2) Behaviours during training; (3) Behaviours outside training; (4) Mental practice; (5) Goal setting; and (6) Seeking optimal feelings (see Table 1). Attitudes during training Analysis of the transcripts revealed that 12 participants deemed perseverance, consistency, and commitment during training to be critical components of the athletes’ preparation. The athletes underwent structured and qualitatively good training regimens to improve their technique. It was apparent that they focused not only on the amount of practice but also on the quality. According to one athlete: Training well is important, because, if one is well prepared in an athletic trial, then it pays off in competition. I’m very precise, serious. I like working. I know that the work pays off; there is nothing left to be done, because it doesn’t change with the competition. The competition is the result of the training. Behaviours during training To achieve a higher level of training, five athletes discussed their attempts during practice to anticipate or reproduce as much as possible the emotional reactions and difficulties they might encounter during competition. These aspects are captured in the following quotes: ‘‘I simulate the competition. There is no anxiety about the results, because even if it goes wrong, it is only training. I look for the positive tension that I need in competition.’’ ‘‘I shoot

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while aroused. I make an effort to shoot well under the most difficult conditions. I try to reproduce those physical conditions – tremors and fatigue – with the conscious intent of managing them.’’ Five athletes also recounted their attempts to focus on the technical aspects of the execution to improve their results in competition: ‘‘While shooting I have lately taken a position which is not really perfect; I move a little, then I reflect on my training to do as I should in competition – control position, be stable, and not move’’. Behaviours outside training The cultivation of personal interests beyond sport (e.g., reading, study courses, recreational activities) and short-term recovery appeared to be important for eight athletes. On a short-term basis, performers engaged in relaxing activities to allow their bodies and minds to recover. An athlete said: ‘‘The days before competition I’m always very quiet; I exercise and rest. The day before the competition I don’t do anything, or I might read a novel; it helps me to become re-energised’’. The athletes were therefore conscious of the importance of mental and physical recovery from their intense training regimens and competitions. Researchers have also acknowledged the value of recovery to prevent exhaustion or burnout (Raglin & Wilson, 2000). Ericsson (2003) argued that expert performers need to balance the constraints of daily deliberate practice and to respect the essential need for rest and recuperation. Findings have important implications for coaches who have the responsibility of monitoring the athletes’ training, performance levels, and any signs of exhaustion or staleness. Mental practice All athletes reported using a range of mental practice strategies to prepare for their events. The general dimension Mental practice comprised the higher-order themes labelled Visual mental rehearsal (n ¼ 8), Kinaesthetic mental rehearsal (n ¼ 2), Emotional rehearsal (n ¼ 2), and Remembering events (n ¼ 4). These included imagery from an external or internal perspective, the recall of past

Table 1 Sub-themes, higher-order themes, and general dimensions related to mental preparation strategies and behaviours the days before the event

SUB-THEMES Dedication during training High level training Commitment during training

HIGHER-ORDER THEMES (a/c) Attitudes during training (12/38)

GENERAL DIMENSIONS Attitudes during training

Competition simulation during training Competitive feelings during training Technique improvement during training

Competition simulation (5/7)

Behaviours during training

Cultivating personal interests Relaxing activities

Behaviours outside training (8/11)

Behaviours outside training

Visual mental rehearsal Kinaesthetic mental rehearsal Emotional rehearsal Remembering an event Remembering a positive event Visualising successful events Self-talk

Visual mental rehearsal (8/12) Kinaesthetic mental rehearsal (2/2) Emotional rehearsal (2/2) Remembering events (4/4)

Mental practice

Technical improvement Obtaining a performance score Achieving goals (Olympics, medals)

Performance goals (11/14)

Seeking technical feelings Seeking competitive feelings Keeping records of personal feelings

Technique improvement (5/6)

Visualisation of successful events (3/3) Self-talk (2/2) Goal setting

Achievement goals (8/10) Seeking optimal feelings (8/9)

Seeking optimal feelings

Keeping records of feelings (6/8)

Note: a ¼ number of athletes providing raw data themes falling into higher-order themes; c ¼ number of raw data themes falling into higher-order themes (in parentheses).

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experiences, the mental rehearsal of successful performances, and self-talk. Mental practice was described to occur in conjunction with other training exercises without involving formal and structured sessions. Durand-Bush and Salmela (2002) also found that gold medallists refined their psychological skills and strategies during daily activities, as well as in training exercises. They commented that these are interesting results because they are contrary to the assumption of some sport psychology practitioners, who hold that mental training to be effective has to be structured and conducted through specific performance enhancement techniques. Cognitive and motivational functions of mental practice are apparent in this quote: Before shooting, I imagine myself from the outside as if I saw myself on the screen, smooth movements and rhythm. Or I take an internal perspective, I see my arm rising, the gun, the target. I pay attention to the finger on the trigger, the tension, temperature, small motion. During training I also try to perceive my feelings, to anticipate emotions associated with a context. Or I relive the feelings, the excitement and satisfaction when I performed at my very best. Eight athletes described the use of imagery of both external and internal perspectives. They also reported being able to switch back and forth between the two perspectives when imagining performance, and to visually represent themselves and recover kinaesthetic feelings regardless of the external or internal perspective. Two participants said: ‘‘I imagine myself from the outside as if I saw someone else, or I imagine what I will see at the moment when I will have to take the shot, to view the target and myself while shooting.’’ ‘‘I try to see the finger which moves on the trigger, the sight. Or at times I imagine I am looking from the outside when doing an action well.’’ White and Hardy (1995) proposed different functions of image perspective in relation to performance, suggesting that imagery of an external perspective should benefit the acquisition and execution of skills where the technical positioning of limbs is important (e.g., rock climbing), whereas imagery of an internal perspective should benefit skills in which the performer is required to make adjustments in response to changes in the visual field (e.g., canoe slalom). Hardy (1997) also recommended combining visual imagery with kinaesthetic imagery, regardless of which visual imagery perspective (i.e., external or internal) is used. In an attempt to provide a conceptual framework for imagery and to account for its various applications and effects, Paivio (1985) proposed that imagery can influence motor behaviour through both cognitive and motivational systems. This notion was further elaborated on by Martin, Moritz, and Hall (1999) who developed an applied model of imagery in sport in which imagery ability (visual and kinaesthetic) is viewed as the determining factor in relation to cognitive, affective, and behavioural outcomes. According to this model, pentathletes in this study were shown to use mental practice during the preparatory phases prior to competition for several cognitive and motivational purposes, including the improvement and refinement of technique, the analysis and correction of performance errors, and the enhancement of motivation, selfconfidence, and assertiveness. Goal setting Another strategy all athletes used to get prepared for the event was setting short- and long-term goals related to technical performance and future achievements. Examples of technical goals are contained in the following quotes: ‘‘I must improve my shooting; I know that if I want to make the Olympic Games I cannot allow myself to shoot 160; I must devise something.’’ ‘‘In the end I see that at least in other sports I do quite well, but I must improve my horse riding.’’ The following sentence exemplifies achievement

goals: ‘‘The objective of any athlete is to reach the Olympic Games, even if that objective is not easy to achieve. Therefore, my goal is to participate in the Olympic Games and, possibly, to win a medal.’’ Seeking optimal feelings Participants described the days preceding an important event as typified by positive attitudes and commitment during training to refine their technique. The athletes (n ¼ 8) deemed it important to seek, recover, reinforce, and keep a record (n ¼ 6) of their optimal feelings associated with a good technical execution during a qualitatively high level of training: ‘‘I try to achieve these feelings in the swimming pool: the feeling of fluency, an ease of action, of force, and push. I write them down, then I re-read them before the contest.’’ Eight performers discussed their attempts to simulate competition, with the aim of anticipating emotional reactions so as to be better prepared to cope with difficulties. I practice as if I was in competition to experience the tension of the contest that is being approached. I try to regain calmness and then to think next about the technical things, what I must do in competition. When there is tension I try to get myself to grasp to the technical things, next I think about the move to make, then the simpler things. Taken as a whole, findings related to preparation strategies the days before the event showed that pentathletes possessed a high level of commitment, engaged in simulation training and mental imagery during training, established performance and achievement goals, and made efforts to seek, recover, and strengthen optimal feelings associated with performance. Preparation strategies before competition Pre-competition strategies encompassed 166 raw data themes, which were classified into 21 sub-themes, and 13 higher-order themes. Similar higher-order themes were grouped into three general dimensions: (1) Emotion control; (2) Mental practice; and (3) Pre-competitive routines (see Table 2). Emotion control All athletes discussed a variety of mental preparation strategies used in isolation or in combination to control the emotional reactions to stress brought on by the impending event. The general dimension Emotion control included the higher-order themes Focusing on technique, Reappraisal, Emotional detachment, Attenuation of emotional symptoms, Intensification of emotional symptoms, and Increasing relaxation or tension. Focusing on technique was the coping strategy cited by eight participants, reflecting the performer’s effort to manage situational demands: ‘‘Whenever I feel tense, I try to focus on the technical things, then I think about what moves to make and then I follow through on the basic things.’’ Different strategies included cognitive reappraisals of situational demands (n ¼ 10), and attempts to be detached from emotions (n ¼ 9): ‘‘I imagine that it is just a game; that I go to have fun. I try to create a situation in which it all seems so simple, merely a game – this is all in order to relieve the tension.’’ ‘‘To enter too much into pre-competition feelings makes me almost fearful; I make light of it and try to avoid it, to put the emotions aside.’’ Participants also described their attempts to manage responses to stress through emotion regulation (n ¼ 14). Emotion regulation involved the attenuation (n ¼ 8) or intensification (n ¼ 4) of emotional-arousal symptoms, or a combination of both strategies (n ¼ 3). The following quote exemplify these strategies: I try to relax myself as much as possible and at the same time to remain concentrated and not lose the tension, because tension when controlled is productive, stimulating. I also recognise that

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Table 2 Sub-themes, higher-order themes, and general dimensions related to mental preparation strategies and behaviours just before the event

SUB-THEMES Focusing on technique Keeping calm Decreasing worry Emotional detachment Maintaining relaxation Decreasing tension Maintaining tension Increasing tension Increasing relaxation or tension

HIGHER-ORDER THEMES (a/c) Focusing on technique (8/24) Reappraisal (10/14)

Anticipating competition tasks Rehearsing optimal execution Insecurity Strong opponent Fatigue Self-talk

Anticipation of the competition (11/27)

Consistent warm-up Competition focus and seclusion Bodily check-up Muscular relaxation Breathing Behavioural strategies

Warm-up and seclusion (10/10)

GENERAL DIMENSIONS Emotion control

Emotional detachment (9/12) Attenuation of emotional symptoms (8/15) Intensification of emotional symptoms (4/8) Increasing relaxation or tension (3/5) Mental practice

Anticipation of difficulties (8/15)

Self-talk (2/6) Pre-competitive routines

Bodily check-up (7/10) Relaxation for shooting (6/10) Behavioural strategies (6/10)

Note: a ¼ number of athletes providing raw data themes falling into higher-order themes; c ¼ number of raw data themes falling into higher-order themes (in parentheses).

to do something important, I must be focused and make the maximum effort. But at the same time I try to relax, to free my mind, and prepare myself for the engagement. I try to do two things: relax and concentrate. As researchers have documented, the athletes have at their disposal a large number of coping strategies to deal with the stress of the competition (for a systematic review, see Nicholls & Polman, 2007). Lazarus (1999) has conceptualised coping as a dynamic and recursive process, which entails interactions between an individual’s beliefs about self, goals, and values (i.e., internal factors) and the environment (i.e., external or situational factors). In an attempt to understand the phenomenological complexity of coping, researchers have identified a few coping dimensions accounting for different strategies based on their function and intention (Anshel, 2001; Hardy et al., 1996; Nicholls & Polman, 2007). For example, problem-focused coping strategies are intended to handle the stressful situation through actions on the environment and the self. Emotion-focused coping involves managing emotional responses to distress associated with the situation. Appraisalfocused coping involves a reappraisal of a situation through logical analysis or situation re-framing. Finally, avoidance-focused coping refers to behavioural (e.g., physically distancing from the situation) and psychological (e.g., cognitive distancing) attempts to disengage. As shown, in this study the four types of coping strategies were represented in the participants’ narratives. Emotion control through problem-focused, emotion-focused, appraisal-focused, and avoidance-focused coping was reflected in the higher-order themes of focusing on technique, attenuation or intensification of emotional symptoms, reappraisal, and emotional detachment, respectively. Mental practice Similar to the strategies adopted in the days before the event, all participants described a range of mental practice procedures to prepare for the imminent competition. These encompassed anticipation of the competition and rehearsing optimal execution

(n ¼ 11), anticipation of difficulties likely to occur during competition (n ¼ 8), and self-talk focused on performance (n ¼ 2). Mentally anticipating the tasks of the competition and rehearsing optimal execution can be viewed as a type of problem-focused coping strategy that pentathletes engaged in to attain optimal preperformance conditions. In the riding competition, I imagine myself going the distance, performing the actions needed for whatever obstacle, or difficulty I may encounter. In imagining the contest I try to think of the simple things, the basic things, the order of tasks, to hold the reins well, to support the horse’s mouth, the position of the saddle and the shoulders. Anticipating difficulties potentially occurring during competition (i.e., feeling insecure and fatigued, and imagining competing against strong opponents) can be considered as emotion-coping strategies. I think about the intense physical exertion during running. Yet, the way I run, the timing I use, will make the race not as tough as I had imagined. At a conscious level I try to convince myself that it will be very difficult, but that I will rise to the challenge and all will go well. Pre-competitive routines All athletes reported having well-developed pre-competitive routines which they went through consistently to attune themselves psychologically and physically for the event and to perform at their best. Ten performers described their pre-competitive routines as including extensive physical and technical warm-up, focusing on competition tasks, blocking out external distractions, adjusting arousal level, reviewing and mentally rehearsing the forthcoming tasks. I always try to do the same things. Preparation is always made as if it were the big event. The warm-up is always the same. I think about the challenges awaiting me and what I must do. I try to

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concentrate on the contest, to isolate myself from the others and from everything around me. We explore the riding course with the trainer, and then he reminds us of how short the distance is. Then I go over it alone or with the other girls; I repeat it walking or running. Then afterwards I try to draw the course with the riding crop in the dirt, or without seeing it. I recall the colours of the obstacles and tell the other girl who is looking at the obstacles. A bodily check-up (n ¼ 7), muscular relaxation and deep breathing (n ¼ 6), and behavioural strategies (n ¼ 6) are further routines usually employed to complete the warm-up just before shooting, which is the first event of the competition: ‘‘I control my breathing and imagine being relaxed. I breath deeply and relax the muscular tension, with the stomach – abdominal breathing. I think about being relaxed, my right leg, left leg, my right arm, left arm.’’ The purpose of any preparation routine is to enable the performer to achieve and remain in an optimal emotional, high self-expectant, confident, and focused state just before and during execution (Singer, 2002). Researchers and practitioners have argued that pre-performance routines are an effective means of promoting physical and mental readiness because they help the athlete to direct attention toward task-relevant internal and external cues, to establish an appropriate activation state for task execution, to create and maintain a constant and familiar external world (which is more critical with events distant from home), and to develop a feeling of control toward the self and the situation (Orlick, 1986; Weinberg & Williams, 2006). In summary, pentathletes reported an array of cognitive, emotional, bodily, and behavioural strategies they consistently used to prepare themselves just before an event. These strategies reflected the athlete’s attempts to actively handle external stressors and expected difficulties, manage personal thoughts and emotional reactions elicited by the appraisal of the situation and personal

capabilities, and attain an optimal pre-performance psychophysical state. Strategies during competition Competition strategies comprised 204 raw data themes. Raw data were grouped into 23 sub-themes, 15 higher-order themes, and five general dimensions: (1) Technical strategies; (2) Automatic execution; (3) Emotional strategies; (4) Attentional strategies; and (5) Reaction to mistakes (see Table 3). Technical strategies The athletes discussed a variety of technical strategies they adopted to face the competitive requirements of one or more events. Technical strategies, Competition like training, and Adaptation to the situation and opponent were the higher-order themes arranged within the general dimension Technical strategies. All athletes reported specific behaviours for each event: ‘‘I try to have good rhythm when making the shot, to follow a rhythmic pattern, be calm, and always make the same movement.’’ ‘‘In fencing I provoke the opponent to react and then I make a correct response. I try to challenge him to make a move which I anticipate and respond to.’’ ‘‘You must have good sensibility and the ability to understand the characteristics of the horse quickly. I try to maintain a good bodily position, to follow the horse in the jump.’’ Eleven performers discussed their attempts during competition to experience the same feelings they usually experience during training: ‘‘Muscular tension, thoughts, concentration, making decisions, and movements are the same. Don’t change anything.’’ Ten performers also described their efforts to adapt to the situation and to their opponent: ‘‘You need a good technique and a certain amount of imagination to figure out how to adapt yourself and your fencing to the competitor.’’

Table 3 Sub-themes, higher-order themes, and general dimensions related to mental preparation strategies and behaviours during competition

SUB-THEMES Shooting strategies Fencing strategies Swimming strategies Riding strategies Running strategies Competition like training Adaptation to the situation Adaptation to the opponent

HIGHER-ORDER THEMES (a/c) Technical strategies (14/46)

GENERAL DIMENSIONS Technical strategies

Competition like training (11/20) Adaptation to the situation and opponent (10/14)

Initiated automatic execution Spontaneous automatic execution

Automatic execution (14/19)

Automatic execution

Awareness that dysfunctional emotions are over Thought stopping Self-talk Self-control

Awareness that dysfunctional emotions are over (10/26) Thought stopping (7/7) Self-talk (6/10) Self-control (4/4)

Emotional strategies

Focusing attention on external cues Focusing attention on internal cues Managing attention Focusing attention on techniques Focusing on each event singularly

Focusing attention (8/17)

Attentional strategies

Diverting attention away Thinking about the next execution Analysing mistakes Seeking the coach’s assistance

Managing attention (5/9) Focusing attention on techniques (4/5) Focusing on each event singularly (4/4) Detachment from mistakes (9/13)

Reaction to mistakes

Analysing mistakes (4/5) Seeking the coach’s assistance (4/5)

Note: a ¼ number of athletes providing raw data themes falling into higher-order themes; c ¼ number of raw data themes falling into higher-order themes (in parentheses).

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Technical strategies can be regarded as problem-focused coping responses made to handle a given situation through actions on the environment and the self (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Interestingly, 11 performers described their attempts during competition to retrieve bodily feelings (e.g., muscular relaxation), thoughts, and attentional focus as usually experienced during practice to achieve best conditions for current performance. These attempts parallel those of the days before the event, where performers try to simulate competition and anticipate difficulties. In either case, athletes seem to make efforts to anticipate (during practice) or recover (during competition) mental and physical states to render the external environment more familiar and comfortable. However, pentathletes recognised that these efforts are not always effective or sufficient. The challenges inherent in a competitive event most often force contenders to adapt to the requirements of a situation and the characteristics of an opponent. Automatic execution In regard to technical strategies, all athletes recounted their experience of an automatised, instinctive-like performance in one or more events. This experience can occur automatically (i.e., without voluntary control) or be initiated voluntarily by the athlete. When fencing I start an assault in an instinctive way. It is not that difficult; it seems to come to me naturally. When shooting, if I try not to think of anything that would distract me, it usually goes well. However, if I say to myself ‘‘Go on and think about shooting’’, I’m not able to release well. It seems to go better for me if I do things automatically. The construct of automaticity relates strongly to expert performance (Ericsson, 2003). Cognitive theories of skill acquisition posit an expert stage of development in which information processing is more rapid, effortless, smooth, autonomous, and consistent compared to controlled processing (Schneider & Shiffrin, 1977). Moreover, automaticity is associated with an optimal performance functional state referred to as peak performance, ‘‘flow’’, or ‘‘the zone’’ in the sports world (Hanin, 2000; Harmison, 2006; Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). Mental training interventions are often aimed at helping athletes attain automaticity and, consequently, perform at their best. Emotional strategies Besides problem-focused coping through technical strategies, emotion- and appraisal-focused coping responses were revealed in the attempts of pentathletes to control dysfunctional emotions that can occur during competition and as a consequence of performance mistakes. The athletes reported a range of coping strategies to attain control of dysfunctional emotions. These included being aware that pre-competitive dysfunctional emotions are over (n ¼ 10), stopping or preventing thoughts related to the final results (n ¼ 7), self-talk (n ¼ 7), and self-control (n ¼ 4). The most cited strategy to manage emotions was recognising that pre-competitive dysfunctional emotions ended as competition started. With this awareness, athletes seem to protect themselves by intentionally leaving the debilitative symptoms of dysfunctional emotions behind them and concentrating on the conviction that the worst is over. Just before entering the horse competition is when I will put myself in the saddle. I will not have any more problems when competition begins. Anxiety and fear quickly disappear when the contest begins. Even if the horse creates some problems during the race, I think of nothing negative. Further strategies (i.e., stopping or preventing thoughts associated with the final outcome, self-talk and rationalisation, and selfcontrol or composure) are apparent in following quotes: ‘‘In swimming I have learned not to watch the chronometer and say ‘Oh

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God, I’m going flat or I’m going strong.’ I don’t watch the ranking, so I don’t think about it or worry.’’ ‘‘I say to myself, ‘Try to be calm. Even if you shake, remain focused on shooting and think next of the release, to make it slow.’ It gives me a sense of confidence.’’ ‘‘I’m one who feels the competition, but I never allow myself to panic during the competition. I succeed in keeping my reactions under control, thinking I can do it because I have done it before.’’ Notably, thought stoppage, the use of positive thoughts, and rational thinking are strategies often recommended by sport psychologists for building confidence and enhancing performance (see Zinsser, Bunker, & Williams, 2006). Attentional strategies Most of the attentional strategies described by all athletes are in many aspects similar to the technical strategies presented above, because they are related to movement coordination and execution. However, attentional strategies were more specific than technical strategies, thereby deserving a separate classification. Focusing attention on internal or external cues was the most frequently cited strategy (n ¼ 8). The check points of action before shooting are the legs, hips, shoulders, and hand. As I set the elevation of my arm, I try to concentrate on the sight and the target. In the riding competition I anticipate the action by seeing the obstacles I must overcome. Looking at them helps me also to lead the horse better, to lead it straight to the obstacle. The athletes’ descriptions of attentional focus are in accordance with Nideffer’s (1992) conceptualisation of the dimensions of attention. Nideffer has contended that performers need to be able to engage in four types of attention derived from the direction of the attentional focus (i.e., internal to the body or external to the environment) and its width (i.e., narrow or broad). In addition, athletes must be able to shift to the appropriate type of attention (i.e., internal-narrow, internal-broad, external-narrow, and external-broad) to match the changing attentional demands of different sport situations. These requirements seem especially important in the pentathlon where the large variability of attentional demands across and within events clearly entails different focus of attention. Being able to manage their attention from one event to the other (n ¼ 5), focusing attention on technical execution (n ¼ 4), and focusing on each event separately (n ¼ 4) were further strategies: ‘‘I must try to concentrate on using my nervous energy in the moments when I need it in order not to burn it all at one time. Therefore between competitions, I try to distract myself a little.’’ ‘‘When I’m there, the thought of the technique is fundamental. If I succeed in thinking of what I must do technically in competition, I have resolved the problem.’’ ‘‘I try living contest to contest. I don’t think about what I should have done, because these thoughts act negatively on me.’’ Keeping attention focused on one event at a time and being able to manage attention and physical energies from one event to another are critical abilities in pentathlon. Athletes, in fact, need to handle their mental and physical resources to ensure they are best prepared for every performance within a day of competition and are able to perform consistently well throughout events. Reaction to mistakes Counteracting the debilitative effects of dysfunctional emotions elicited as a consequence of performance mistakes was an issue for all athletes. They reported the use of single or combined approaches to dealing with mistakes during performance. The most frequent strategy was a detachment from mistakes (n ¼ 9), that is, trying to divert attention away from the mistake and/or thinking about the next execution: ‘‘It serves no good to fixate on the error; it is better to concentrate on what comes next. It is as if after an action

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everything vanishes. I have to make another shot, I have to continue.’’ Analysing mistakes to identify problems and solutions (n ¼ 4), and seeking the help of the coach (n ¼ 4) were themes cited less frequently, probably because these are behaviours more appropriate during training or pre-competition rather than during competition: ‘‘For me it is always more important to know where I made the error than not to make it. For example, it goes well for me if I see that I have made 7 on the left. I understand that the problem is in the release, in the action.’’ ‘‘The coach helps when something doesn’t work, because he can succeed in guiding you in the correct techniques, or because he says, ‘You are doing things well’ or he indicates where the problem is.’’ In addition to the strategies adopted just before competition, overall competition strategy results showed that the athletes possessed a repertoire of well-developed, idiosyncratic technical procedures, behavioural plans, and coping responses to deal with the different events of the pentathlon (i.e., shooting, fencing, swimming, riding, and running). Indeed, a main issue in pentathlon is to manage mental and physical resources from an event to the other across a competition day. Difficulties encountered in competition Despite the range of behavioural strategies and coping responses displayed by pentathletes to face competitive demands, several difficulties were recognised as potential threats to competitive performance. These were identified in 174 raw data themes then subsumed into 20 sub-themes, nine higher-order themes, and four general dimensions: (1) Negative expectations; (2) Dysfunctional bodily symptoms related to emotions; (3) Attentional difficulties; and (4) Coping difficulties (see Table 4). Negative expectations The higher-order theme Focusing on mistakes (n ¼ 14), within the general dimension Negative expectations, encompassed several sources of concern. Quotes exemplifying each sub-theme follow.

Expecting mistakes: ‘‘When I come to three rows of 10 and think, ‘The time has come for a mistake’, the error becomes unavoidable. I imagine myself making the error and then the error occurs.’’ Focusing on avoiding mistakes: ‘‘In some circumstances my intention is not to do the best but to avoid making a bad shot. That is when I make a bad shot. When I think about avoiding the error, I make the error.’’ Reacting negatively to mistakes: ‘‘When I make the error I lose sight of everything. Many times I get angry about the errors I made, and for a little while lose sight of the true and positive attitude I should have.’’ Worrying about making mistakes: ‘‘In fencing if I begin badly, I’m afraid I will not have enough time to recover. If, instead, I begin well, I fear that the contest will be too long and that I will lose my concentration.’’ Worrying about being injured: ‘‘There is the usual amount of danger in dealing with a new horse, the risk of falling, and the possibility of things going badly, especially if you take a nasty fall.’’ Additional sources of concern were related to perceiving technical problems (n ¼ 12) and expecting underperformance outcomes (n ¼ 8): ‘‘I have had some technical problems and I have lost some sense of security. I was worried because I felt that I did not do well in fencing training.’’ ‘‘I imagine the actions that I will take, or how I want the horse to respond. However, in theory I know what I must do but in reality I don’t do it always.’’ Negative expectations were associated with a range of dysfunctional bodily symptoms related to emotions, attentional difficulties, and coping difficulties. Dysfunctional bodily symptoms related to emotions All performers described a range of bodily symptoms associated with emotional reactions to competitive events. The higherorder theme Dysfunctional bodily symptoms included muscle trembling, muscle tension, stomach tension, weakness, fatigue, and enhanced heart rate: ‘‘It starts with shaking legs, and it is crazy when your arms and legs shake while shooting. I know as a result I can’t make the shot.’’ ‘‘Before getting on the horse, there is the fear of approaching the unknown. I feel muscular tension everywhere, even in my arms. It is like being hit in the head, I just

Table 4 Sub-themes, higher-order themes, and general dimensions related to problems encountered during competition

SUB-THEMES Expecting mistakes Focusing on avoiding mistakes Reacting negatively to mistakes Worrying about making mistakes Worrying about being injured Perceiving technical problems Expecting underperformance outcomes

HIGHER-ORDER THEMES (a/c) Focusing on mistakes (14/51)

GENERAL DIMENSIONS Negative expectations

Muscle trembling Muscle tension Stomach tension Weakness Fatigue Enhanced heart rate

Dysfunctional bodily symptoms (14/33)

Dysfunctional bodily symptoms

Negative thoughts Distracting thoughts Fluctuating attention Thinking about the execution

Focusing difficulties (14/28)

Attentional difficulties

Lack of control Loss of control Choking

Lack of control (7/8) Loss of control (6/14) Choking (2/2)

Perceiving technical problems (12/21) Expecting underperformance outcomes (8/15)

Thinking about the execution (2/2) Copying difficulties

Note: a ¼ number of athletes providing raw data themes falling into higher-order themes; c ¼ number of raw data themes falling into higher-order themes (in parentheses).

M. Bertollo et al. / Psychology of Sport and Exercise 10 (2009) 244–254

can’t connect. I feel my stomach tighten.’’ ‘‘I feel hot as if I’m boiling. My breath is accelerated; there are tremors in my legs, in my arms. I hear my heartbeat in my ears; the sound is terrible, like a hammer.’’ Attentional difficulties The general dimension Attentional difficulties encompassed the higher-order themes Focusing difficulties (n ¼ 14) and Thinking about the execution (n ¼ 2). Negative thoughts, distracting thoughts, and fluctuating attention represent focusing difficulties arising during competition: ‘‘I think, ‘Oh, time is up, I must take the shot’, and the shot goes too quickly. In that moment I’m completely concentrated on this thought.’’ ‘‘Sometimes during competition I think about what I did the day before and the things I discussed with my friends. Thinking like this causes me not to concentrate.’’ ‘‘Sometimes I start well and then, during the course, I relax so much that I loose the energy needed to react in emergency situations. Perhaps I become too confident. I lose my concentration and become distracted.’’ Thinking about the execution in an attempt to regain control of attentional difficulties was an additional concern reported by two athletes: ‘‘Just when things are not going well, I tend to get distracted and begin to analyse what I am doing. This thought slows me down and damages my performance.’’ Coping difficulties Athletes experienced coping problems during the event because of lack of control (n ¼ 7), loss of control (n ¼ 6), and choking under pressure (n ¼ 2): ‘‘In fencing sometimes I don’t understand what the opponent is doing and I don’t know how to respond. He strikes me, moves away and I say ‘Aren’t you a shrewd one?’ No, and this is most demoralising.’’ ‘‘When things go badly, I sit down and berate myself and cannot accept the situation.’’ ‘‘There are times when I say, ‘I don’t see when this will end. Oh God, let me finish this contest! I want it to end!’ And I am in acute crisis.’’ Overall findings regarding the problems encountered during competition underline the debilitative effects of negative expectations (i.e., paying attention to mistakes and problems, and expecting underperformance outcomes), which are likely to engender dysfunctional bodily symptoms, attention difficulties, and coping problems. Results are in accordance with the view that the negative expectations of athletes and their attempts to suppress unwanted thoughts and emotional reactions can lead to overthinking, distraction, perceptions of inadequacy, fear of failure, and possibly the activation of ironic processes (Wegner, 1994; see Janelle, 1999). Ironic effects seem to be a result of trying hard not to do something. Making efforts to remove a negative thought or mental image related to an action may lead performers to remain focused on the negative image that they are trying to avoid. For example, an athlete may think about not shooting an 8 after a series of 10s, and then do just that. A focus on unwanted thoughts or incorrect actions may cause excessive mental control over a skill and increase conscious processing. The increased awareness of the movement can undermine fluidity and automaticity, and determine a reinvestment in controlled processing (Maxwell, Masters, & Eves, 2000). A task-irrelevant focus and a conscious processing of a skill would replace meta-cognitive task-relevant attention and functional goal-directed behaviour (Wegner, 1994). Post-competition evaluation Pentathletes reported spending a large amount of time in the days after an event thoroughly examining their performance, thus allowing them to draw lessons for future training and competitions. Extensive self-evaluations were believed necessary to establish plans for continued improvement. Analyses included behaviours,

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attitudes, thoughts, and emotions related to poor and good performance processes and outcomes. Post-competition evaluation embraced 14 raw data themes. Raw data were incorporated into two sub-themes named Analysis of performance (six athletes provided eight raw data themes) and Analysis of mistakes (six athletes provided six raw data themes). The hierarchical content analysis did not go further. Both sub-themes revolved around a post-competition analysis of behaviours and performance during competition: ‘‘I try to re-live the competition and to see what went well, what went wrong, whether I have lost points needlessly, what more I could have done. I try to remember the contest constructively, to imagine my feelings.’’ ‘‘I try to understand where I made mistakes, to learn not to repeat them in the future. After the contest I try to identify the things that did not go well and to improve them.’’ Interestingly, the athletes’ self-assessment procedures are in accordance with the positive approach for reinforcement and performance feedback, which Smoll and Smith (2006) have recommended to coaches to help them establish effective communication with their athletes. In this approach, athletes’ self-evaluation is encouraged, mistakes and troubles are regarded as opportunities for learning and improving, and functional behaviours are reinforced as soon as they occur. Conclusion and practical implications Pentathletes in this study exhibited a large range of preparation strategies and coping responses. It is important to note that these are nomothetic findings and that no one performer used all the strategies identified. Furthermore, each performer displayed a unique combination of idiosyncratic approaches. Rather than being limited to particular procedures, pentathletes were able to apply several strategies in combination or adopt different approaches for different purposes, without having received any formal training in sport psychology. Many individual differences also emerged regarding the difficulties encountered during the competitive events. These results have implications for those designing mental training programs. As discussed, negative expectations and related dysfunctional reactions (i.e., debilitative bodily symptoms, distracting thoughts, fluctuating attention, focusing on the execution, and coping difficulties) are likely to lead to excessive mental control toward the action, conscious processing, and attempts to remove negative thoughts. These attempts are likely to activate ironic processes in which negative thoughts and symptoms are reinforced instead of being removed. Janelle (1999) recommended helping athletes to interrupt the ironic process by reducing the cognitive load of a task (i.e., reducing anxiety and task complexity), rendering the functioning of conscious monitoring useless or irrelevant, making more automatic the operating process, and facilitating awareness of the ironic phenomenon. Accordingly, Gardner and Moore (2004) have recently advocated a Mindfulness-AcceptanceCommitment (MAC) intervention to enhance athletic performance, which is in contrast to traditional cognitive-behavioural, skillstraining-based interventions addressed to change, replace, suppress, or control negative thoughts and emotions. The MAC approach emphasises mindful (non-judgmental) present-moment awareness and acceptance of cognitive and affective internal experiences (such as thoughts, feelings, and physical sensations), coupled with valued goals and attention to external cues and contingencies required for optimal performance. The development of mindful awareness and acceptance of internal processes is intended to prevent efforts at internal self-control, a task-irrelevant focus of attention, and dysfunctional behaviours. Awareness and acceptance of individual experiences are also central in the Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) model (Hanin, 2000, 2007). Indeed, Hanin has used the notion of meta-experience to account for knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and

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preferences for an emotion that an athlete can develop over the course of successful and less than successful performances. He also suggested several IZOF-based principles in the planning and application of self-regulation procedures. To be effective, selfregulation should target idiosyncratic psycho-bio-social (PBS) states related to performance (e.g., cognition, emotion, motivation), consider individually optimal and dysfunctional contents and intensities of PBS states, optimise (i.e., increase or decrease) intensity levels of PBS states, evaluate the change of intensity of PBS states, focus on PBS dynamics prior to, during, and post-performance, focus on the PBS patterns during practice and competition, and include several combined and most appropriate methods of self-regulation (see Hanin, 2000; Robazza, Pellizzari, & Hanin, 2004). Notably, pentathletes in this study were shown to have developed a range of idiosyncratic self-regulation procedures that are in accordance with most of the IZOF-based principles. In conclusion, sport psychology consultants should examine carefully the performers’ preparation strategies, coping responses, and sources of concern, which are often the result of long periods of training, repeated competitive experiences of success and failure, and educational influences of significant persons, such as coaches, teachers, and parents (Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Gould et al., 2002). In the effort to design systematic programs to develop mental skills and coping strategies, sport psychologists must be cognisant of individual differences as well as the specific physical, technical, and psychological demands of a sport. A basic knowledge of the characteristics of a given sport and a deep understanding of the athletes’ thoughts and behaviours pre-, during, and post-competition are necessary to help performers achieve their personal best.

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