Indus Script Corpora, archaeological evidence of terracotta cakes, animal bones

Indus Script Corpora, archaeological evidence of terracotta cakes, animal bones Indus Script Corpora, archaeological evidence of terracotta cakes, animal bones explained in the context of metallurgy, cupellation, purification of metals in early Bronze Age Indus Script Corpora has provided a Kalibangan terracotta cake with Indus Script hieroglyphs which has been deciphered in the context of metalwork. The use of the word 'sacrifice' as a translation of 'yajna' has led to many distortions in the interpretation and evaluation of ancient Rigveda and other Vedic texts and appreciation of the cultural traditions seen as an uninterrupted, celebrated continuum in Bharatam from Vedic times (e.g. celebrated on Yupa inscriptions). The process of yajna is a purification process engaged in by a yajnika, performer of the yajna process, with the guidance of 16 priests, one of whom is called Potr, 'purifier'. Yajna is veneration, prayer, cosmic-consciousness enquiry, fire-worship by the fire-priests of antiquity and in chandas, 'prosody' explain the process of yajna as a transcendental process transforming Atman from Being to Becoming. Bizarre explanations have been conjectured for the animal bones found in the context of firealtars of the civilization. I suggest that the animal bones are simply explained in the early metallurgical processes of the Bronze Age to purify metals using 'litharge' and 'cupellation' techniques using animal bones which are composed of calcium carbonate. (See notes below for the technical explanations of cupellation, litharge processes in furnaces/cupels). In mundane, materialistic terms, the yajna process can also be viewed as a metallurgical process since it has been shown that Soma (unlike haoma) was NOT a herbal but signified a synonym, ams'u (ancu) which could be semantically related to, treated as a cognate of Tocharian ancu 'iron'. http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/05/rigveda-soma-not-herb-notdrink-but.html A metallurgical hypothesis about terracotta cakes as 'litharge cakes' for further archaeometallurgical evaluation One terracotta cake discovered by BB Lal in Kalibangan has an Indus Script inscription. The decipherment of the hieroglyphs on the Kalibangan terracotta cake evidences the use of terracotta cakes in the context of metalwork involving furnaces/smelters. Thus, it is reasonable to relate the function of terracotta cakes as 'litharge cakes' in an ancient process which can be compared with archaeologically attested processes of 'cupellation' from many Bronze Age sites. This hypothesis has to be tested further by evaluating the chemical composition of 'terracotta

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cakes', to determine what kind of ore was treated, their main components, and the chemical conditions used in the metallurgical/cupellation processes. Kalibangan. Mature Indus period: terracotta cake incised with horned deity. Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India See notes at http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2013/05/functions-served-by-terracotta-cakes-of.html A terracotta type found in Kalibangan has the hieroglyph of a warrior: bhaTa 'warrior' Rebus: bhaTa 'furnace', thus reinforcing the smelting process in the fire-altars. Smelters might have used bhaThi 'bellows'. bhástrā f. ʻ leathern bag ʼ ŚBr., ʻ bellows ʼ Kāv., bhastrikā -- f. ʻ little bag ʼ Daś. [Despite EWA ii 489, not from a √bhas ʻ blow ʼ (existence of which is very doubtful). -Basic meaning is ʻ skin bag ʼ (cf. bakura ʻ bellows ʼ ~ bākurá -- dŕ̊ti -- ʻ goat's skin ʼ), der. from bastá -- m. ʻ goat ʼ RV. (cf.bastājina -- n. ʻ goat's skin ʼ MaitrS. = bāstaṁ carma Mn.); with bh -- (and unexpl. -- st -- ) in Pa. bhasta -- m. ʻ goat ʼ, bhastacamma -- n. ʻ goat's skin ʼ. Phonet. Pa. and all NIA. (except S. with a) may be < *bhāsta -- , cf. bāsta -- above (J. C. W.)]With unexpl. retention of -- st -- : Pa. bhastā -- f. ʻ bellows ʼ (cf. vāta -- puṇṇa -- bhasta -camma -- n. ʻ goat's skin full ofwind ʼ), biḷāra -- bhastā -- f. ʻ catskin bag ʼ, bhasta -- n. ʻ leather sack (for flour) ʼ; K. khāra -- basta f. ʻ blacksmith's skin bellows ʼ; -- S. bathī f. ʻ quiver ʼ (< *bhathī); A. Or. bhāti ʻ bellows ʼ, Bi. bhāthī, (S of Ganges) bhã̄thī; OAw. bhāthā̄̆ ʻ quiver ʼ; H. bhāthā m. ʻ quiver ʼ, bhāthī f. ʻ bellows ʼ; G. bhāthɔ,bhātɔ, bhāthṛɔ m. ʻ quiver ʼ (whence bhāthī m. ʻ warrior ʼ); M. bhātā m. ʻ leathern bag, bellows, quiver ʼ, bhātaḍ n. ʻ bellows, quiver ʼ; (X bhráṣṭra -- ?) N. bhã̄ṭi ʻ bellows ʼ, H. bhāṭhī f. *khallabhastrā -- .Addenda: bhástrā -- : OA. bhāthi ʻ bellows ʼ .(CDIAL 9424) bhráṣṭra n. ʻ frying pan, gridiron ʼ MaitrS. [√bhrajj] Pk. bhaṭṭha -- m.n. ʻ gridiron ʼ; K. büṭhü f. ʻ level surface by kitchen fireplace on which vessels are put when taken off fire ʼ; S. baṭhu m. ʻ large pot in which grain is parched, large cooking fire ʼ, baṭhī f. ʻ distilling furnace ʼ; L. bhaṭṭh m. ʻ grain -- parcher's oven ʼ, bhaṭṭhī f. ʻ kiln, distillery ʼ, awāṇ. bhaṭh; P. bhaṭṭhm., °ṭhī f. ʻ furnace ʼ, bhaṭṭhā m. ʻ kiln ʼ; N. bhāṭi ʻ oven or vessel in which clothes are steamed for washing ʼ; A. bhaṭā ʻ brick -- or lime -- kiln ʼ; B. bhāṭi ʻ kiln ʼ; Or. bhāṭi ʻ brick -- kiln, distilling pot ʼ; Mth. bhaṭhī, bhaṭṭī ʻ brick -- kiln, furnace, still ʼ; Aw.lakh. bhāṭhā ʻ kiln ʼ; H. bhaṭṭhā m. ʻ kiln ʼ, bhaṭ f. ʻ kiln, oven, fireplace ʼ; M. bhaṭṭā m. ʻ pot of fire ʼ, bhaṭṭī f. ʻ forge ʼ. -- X bhástrā -- q.v.bhrāṣṭra -- ; *bhraṣṭrapūra -- , *bhraṣṭrāgāra -.Addenda: bhráṣṭra -- : S.kcch. bhaṭṭhī keṇī ʻ distil (spirits) ʼ.*bhraṣṭrāgāra ʻ grain parching house ʼ. [bhráṣṭra -- , agāra -- ]P. bhaṭhiār, °ālā m. ʻ grainparcher's shop ʼ.(CDIAL 9656, 9658) http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/12/indus-script-inscriptions-compare-with.html I suggest that a possible reference to the use of Dadhyanc bones in a process of cupellation may be seen in seven Ricas of Rigveda. The brief attributes narrated in the Rigveda extol Dadhyanc as the teacher of mysti science, Dadhyanc's bones used by TvaSTA to fabricate Indra's vajra 'thunderbolt' weapon, There is also a reference to Pravargya VidyA attributed to Dadhyanc. The references are cited with the commentaries of Sayana in the embedded seven ricas of Rigveda.

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1.117.22 You replaced, As'vins, with the head of a horse, (the head of) Dadhyan~c, the son of Atharvan, and, true to his promise, he revealed to you the mystic knowledge which he had learned from Tvas.t.a_, and which was as a ligature of the waist to you. [Tvas.t.a_ = Indra; the knowlege was kaks.yam. va_m = a girdle to you both; strengthening them to perform religious rites]. Dadhyan~c, the son of Atharvan, taught you the mystic science. [Legend: Vana Parva, Maha_bha_rata: gods, being oppressed by the Ka_lakeya asuras, solicited from the sage Dadhica his bones, which he gave them, and from which Tvas.t.a_ fabricated the thunderbolt with which Indra slew Vr.tra and routed the asuras. The text: Indra, having taught the science called pravargya vidya_ and madhu-vidya_ to Dadhyan~c, threatened that he would cut off his head if ever he taught them to any one else; the As'vins prevailed upon him, nevertheless, to teach them the prohibited knowledge, and, to evade Indra's threat, took off the head of the sage, replacing it by that of a horse; Indr, apprised of Dadhyan~c's breach of faith, sturck off his equine head with the thunderbolt; on which, the As'vins restored to him his own. The pravargya vidya_ is said to imply certain verses of the r.k, yajur and sa_ma vedas, and the madhu-vidya_ the Bra_hman.a]. Dadhyanc in Rigveda rvs.1.116

When, by the horses' head, Atharvans' offspring Dadhyanc made known to you the Somas' sweetness.

rvs.1.117

22 Ye brought the horses' head, Asvins, and gave it unto Dadhyanc the offspring of Atharvan.

rvs.1.119

Ye drew unto yourselves the spirit of Dadhyanc, and then the horses' head uttered his words to you.

rvs.1.139

9 Dadhyanc of old, Angiras, Priyamedha these, and Kanva, Atri, Manu knew my birth, yea, those of

rvs.6.16

Dadhyanc the Rsi, lighted up.

rvs.9.108

4 By whom Dadhyanc Navagva opens fastened doors, by whom the sages gained their wish,

rvs.10.48

I stripped the Dasyus of their manly might, and gave the cattlestallsto Matarigvanand Dadhyanc.

Pavitram A Rigvedic term used in the context of yajna is Pavitra. पवित्र [p=611,1] n. a means of purification , filter , strainer , straining-cloth &c (made of thread or hair or straw , for clarifying fruits , esp.the सोम) RV. &c; कुश grass (esp. two कुश leaves for holding offerings or for sprinkling and purifying ghee &c ) S3Br. Ka1tyS3r. Mn. &c

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(ifc.also को » स-पवित्रक) , a ring of कुश grass worn on the fourth finger on partic. occasions W.; a purifying prayer or मन्त्र Mn. Ya1jn5. MBh.; a means of purifying or clearing the mind RV. iii , 26 , 8 ; 31 , 6 &c; melted butter, honey, water, copper; m. N. of a partic. सोम-sacrifice belonging to the राजसूय Ta1n2d2Br. Sch. S3rS. Refining is a process for achieving pure metals. This is signified by the word Potr 'purifier', one of 16 priests engaged in a yajna from Rigvedic times. The priest statue of Mohenjodaro with hieroglyphs has been deciphered as a Potr. A significant feature of archaeological finds of fire-altars in almost all sites of Sarasvati-Sindhu (Indus) civilization is that there was a yaSTi 'stele' installed in every fire-altar and terracotta cakes, animal bones were also found in fire-altars. The purpose served by the terracotta cakes and animal bones can be explained in metallurgical terms related to 'litharge cakes' and 'cupellation'. One possible function of these terracotta cakes is comparable to 'litharge cakes' in ancient metallurgy."Litharge cakes are usually circular or concavo-convex, about 15 cm in diameter. They are the most common archaeological evidence of cupellation in the Early Bronze Age." (Bayley, J. 2008 Medieval precious metal refining: archaeology and contemporary texts compared, in Martinón-Torres, M and Rehren, Th (eds) Archaeology, history and science: integrating approaches to ancient materials by. Left Coast Press: 131-150.) By their chemical composition, archaeologists can tell what kind of ore was treated, its main components, and the chemical conditions used in the process. This permits insights about production process, trade, social needs or economic situations. "The assays were made in the cupellation or assay furnace, which needs to have windows and bellows to ascertain that the air oxidises the lead, as well as to be sure and prepared to take away the cupel when the process is over. Pure lead has to be added to the matter being tested to guarantee the further separation of the impurities. After the lithargehas been absorbed by the cupel, buttons of silver were formed and settled in the middle of the cupel.If the alloy also contained a certain amount of gold, it settled with the silver and both had to be separated by parting...The primary tool for small scale cupellation was the cupel. Cupels were manufactured in a very careful way. They used to be small vessels shaped in the form of an inverted truncated cone, made out of bone ashes. According to Georg Agricola, the best material was obtained from burned antlers of deer although fish spines could work well. Ashes have to be ground into a fine and homogeneous powder and mixed with some sticky substance to mould the cupels... Archaeological investigations as well as archaeometallurgical analysis and written texts from the Renaissance have demonstrated the existence of different materials for their manufacture; they could be made also with mixtures of bones and wood ashes, of poor quality, or moulded with a mixture of this kind in the bottom with an upper layer of bone ashes. Different recipes depend on the expertise of the assayer or on the special purpose for which it was made (assays for minting, jewelry, testing purity of recycled material or coins). Archaeological evidence shows that at the beginnings of small scale cupellation, potsherds or clay cupels were used...The first known use of silver was in the Near East in Anatolia and Mesopotamia during the 4th and 3rd millennium BC.,the Early Bronze Age. Archaeological findings of silver and lead objects together with litharge pieces and slag have been studied in a variety of sites, and metallurgical analysis suggests that by then people were 4

confidently extracting silver from lead ores so the method would have been known earlier.During the following Iron Age, cupellation was done by fusing the debased metals with a surplus of lead, the bullion or result product of this fusion was then heated in a cupellation furnace to separate the noble metals...The origin of the use of cupellation for analysis is not known. One of the earliest written references to cupels is Theophilus Divers Ars in the 12th century CE...A primary use of cupellation was related to minting activities, and it was also used in testing jewelry." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupellation Presence of lead in silver artefacts is a signature tune to indicate the use of cupellation in ancient times. Hieroglyph: வேதை³ vētai , n. < vēdha. 1. Drilling, boring; துதைக்தக Trasmutation of 'base' metals into 'precious metals' is rasavidyA. வேதை² vētai, n. < bhēda. 1. Alchemy, transmutation of metals; இரசோைம் . (W.) வேைகப்பபான் vētaka-p-poṉ, n. < வேை கம் ¹ +. Refined gold; புடமிட்ட பபான். அல் லாை பபான்னிற் காட்டில் வேைகப்பபான்னுக்கு ஏற் றமுண்டு (திே் . திருமாதல, 39, ே் யா.). வேைகம் ¹ vētakam, n. < bhēdaka. 1. Differentiating, distinguishing; வேறுபடுை்துதக. உயிரு மாயா வுடதலயும் வேைகஞ் பசய் ைாண்ட ேங் கணவன (வகாயிற் பு. இரணிய. 56). 2. Change, modification; வேறுபாடு. விண்கைி கூர்ேவைார் வேைகம் ேந்து பேைிப்படு மாகாவை (திருோச. 49, 1). Perhaps, the origin of the use of cupellation has to be traced to Rigveda references to the fashioning of vajra by TvaSTa from the bones of Dadhica (Dadhyanc). The spine of Dadhica (Dadhyanc) becomes the vajrAyudha of Indra (oftern translated as 'thunderbolt' and also shown in the arms of Vajrapani in Bauddham tradition). Cupellation Calcareous is an adjective meaning mostly or partly composed of calcium carbonate, in other words, containing lime or being chalky. The lining of hearths had to be calcareous because lead reacts with silica (clay compounds) to form viscous lead silicate that prevents the needed absorption of litharge, whereas calcareous materials do not react with lead. "Primary production of silver requires the smelting and then cupellation of argentiferous lead ores...Lead melts at 327°C, lead oxide at 888°C and silver melts at 960°C. To separate the silver, the alloy is melted again at the high temperature of 960°C to 1000°C in an oxidizing environment... The lead oxidises to lead monoxide, then known as litharge, which captures the oxygen from the other metals present. The liquid lead oxide is removed or absorbed by capillary action into the hearth linings." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cupellation "The base of the hearth was dug in the form of a saucepan, and covered with an inert and porous material rich in calcium or magnesium such as shells, lime, or bone ash." (Bayley, J.,Eckstein, K. 2006. Roman and medieval litharge cakes: structure and composition, in J. Pérez-Arantegui (ed) Proc. 34th Int. Symposium on Archaeometry. Institución Fernando el Católito, CSIC, Zaragoza: 145153. (http://ifc.dpz.es/recursos/publicaciones/26/10/_ebook.pdf )

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16th century cupellation furnaces (per Agricola) Cupellation furnaces, G. Agricola in De re metallica,[1556/1950] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cupellation_furnaces,_Agricola_223.jpg See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2015/12/binjor-fire-altar-with-octagonal-yasti.html Binjor fire-altar with octagonal yaṣṭi provides evidence of Vedic continuum in Indus script Corpora "One ancient process for extracting the silver from lead was cupellation. Lead was melted in a bone ash 'test' or 'cupel' and air blown across the surface. This oxidised the lead to litharge, leaving a button of silver. In ancient times, the litharge was discarded, but more usually it was resmelted to lead. "Pigs" of Roman lead have been found marked EX ARG (argentum is Latin for Silver). This presumably indicated that the lead had already been de-silvered. This process was viable economically if the lead contained at least 8 troy ounces of silver per ton of lead (178 ppm)." https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refining_(metallurgy) Rigveda Rica which reference Dadhyanc

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1.116.01 In like manner as a worshipper strews the sacred grass for the Na_satyas, so do I urge on their laudations, as the wind drives on the clouds; they, who gave a bride to the 8

youthful Vimada, and bore her away in their car, outstripping the rival host. [Vimada having won his bride at Svayamvara, or choice of a husband by a princess, was stopped on his way home by his unsuccessful competittors, when the As'vins came to his succour, and placed the bride in their chariot, repulsed the assailants, and carried the damsel to th eresidence of the prince. 1.116.02 Na_satyas,borne by strong and rapid (steeds), and (urged) by the encouragements of the gods, the ass of you, thus instigated, overcame a thousand (enemies) in conflict, in the war grateful to Yama. [The ass: An ass (ra_sabha) given by Praja_pati. The chariot of the As'vins is drawn by two asses (ra_sabhavas'vinoh) (Nighan.t.u 1.14); or, it may mean, 'one going swiftly', and the rest of the passage, 'obtained precedence for the As'vins over other gods in the oblation, through his mastering the stanzas declared by Praja_pati']. 1.116.03 Tugra, verily, As'vins, sent (his son) Bhujyu to sea, as a dying man parts with his riches; but you brought him back in vessels of your own, floating over the ocean, and keeping out the waters. [Tugra was a friend of the As'vins; he was annoyed by enemies residing in a different island. He sen this son Bhujyu agains thtem, with an army on board a ship; after sailing some distance, the vessel foundered in a gale. Bhujyu applied to the As'vins, who brought him an dhis troops back in their own ships, in three days' time]. 1.116.04 Threenights, and three days, Na_satyas, have you conveyed Bhujyu in three rapid, revolving cars, having a hundred wheels, and drawn by six horses, along the dry bed of the ocean to the short of the sea. 1.116.05 this exploit you achieved, As'vins, in the ocean, where there is nothing to give support, nothing to rest upon,nothing to cling to, that you brought Bhujyu, sailing in a hundred-oared ship, to his father's house. [s'ata_ritram na_vam = a ship with a hundred, i.e., with many oars]. 1.116.06 As'vins, the white horse you gave to Pedu, whose horses were indestrucible, was ever to him success; that, your precious gift, is always to be celebrated; the horse of Pedu, the scatterer (of enemies), is always to be invoked. [Pedu was a ra_jar.s.i, who worshipped the As'vins; therefore, they gave him a white horse, possessing which, he was always victorious over his enemies. 1.116.07 You gave, leaders (of sacrifice), to Kaks.i_vat, of the race of Pajra, various knowledge; you filled from the hoof of your vigorous steed, as if from a cask, a hundred jars of wine. [Pajras = An:giras; Kaks.i_vat was a descendant of this family]. 1.116.08 You quenched with cold (water) the blazing flames (that encompassed Atri), and supplied him with food-supported strength; you extricated him, As'vins, from the dark (cavern) into which he had been thrown headlong and restored him to every kind of welfare. 1.116.09 Na_satyas, you raised up the well, and made th ebase, which had been turned upwards, the curved mouth, so that the water issued for the beverage of the thirsty Gotama, the offerer. [Water issued: Related to the Maruts; describes the manner in which the well was presented to Gotama]. 1.116.10 Na_satyas, you stripped off from the aged Cyavana his entire skin, as if it had been a coat of mail; you reversed, Dasras, the life of the sage who was without kindred, and constituted him the husband of many maidens. [In Vana Parva, Maha_bha_rata, Cyavana is the son of Bhr.gu and was engaged inpenance near the Narmada_ river until the white ants constructed their nests round his body, and left only his eyes visible. Sukanya_, the daughter of Kinga S'arya_ti, having come to the place, and seeing two bright spots in what seemed to be an ant-hill, pierced them with a stick; the sage visited the offence upon S'arya_ti and his 9

attendants, and was appeased only by the promise of the king to give him his daughter in marriage. Subsequently, the As'vins, coming to his hermitage, blessed Sukanya_s union, with so old and ugly a husband as Cyavana. Admiring her fidelity, they bestowed on the sage a condition of youth and beauty like their own. Cyavana is jahita, abandoned; i.e. by sons, and others (putra_dibhih parityakta); an allusion, perhaps, to his solitary condition as an ascetic. In return for heir friendly office, Cyavana compelled Indra to assent to the As'vins, receiving at sacrifices a share of the Soma]. 1.116.11 Na_satyas, leaders, glorious was that exploit of yours, one to be celebrated, to be adored, to be desired by us, when, becoming aware (of the circumstance), you extricated Vandana_, (hidden), like a concealed treasure, from the (well) that was visible (to travellers). [dars'ata_t, well, i.e. that which was to be seen by thirsty travellers]. 1.116.12 I proclaim, leaders (of sacriifce), for the sake of acquiring wealth, that inimitable deed which you performed, as the thunder (announces) rain, when provided by you with the head of a horse. Dadhyan~c, the son of Atharvan, taught you the mystic science. [Legend: Vana Parva, Maha_bha_rata: gods, being oppressed by the Ka_lakeya asuras, solicited from the sage Dadhica his bones, which he gave them, and from which Tvas.t.a_ fabricated the thunderbolt with which Indra slew Vr.tra and routed the asuras. The text: Indra, having taught the science called pravargya vidya_ and madhu-vidya_ to Dadhyan~c, threatened that he would cut off his head if ever he taught them to any one else; the As'vins prevailed upon him, nevertheless, to teach them the prohibited knowledge, and, to evade Indra's threat, took off the head of the sage, replacing it by that of a horse; Indr, apprised of Dadhyan~c's breach of faith, sturck off his equine head with the thunderbolt; on which, the As'vins restored to him his own. The pravargya vidya_ is said to imply certain verses of the r.k, yajur and sa_ma vedas, and the madhu-vidya_ the Bra_hman.a]. 1.116.13 The intelligent (Vadhrimati) invoked you. Na_satyas, who are the accom;ishers (of desires) and the protectors of many, with a sacred hymn; her prayer was heard, like (the instruction of) a teacher, and you, As'vins, gave to the wife of an impotent husband, Hiran.yahasta, her son. [Vadrimati was the wife of a certain ra_jar.s.i, who was im\potent. The As'vins, propitiated by her prayers, gave her a son]. 1.116.14 Na_satyas, leaders, you liberated the quail from the mouth of the dog that had seized her, and you, who are the benefactors of many, have granted to the sage who praises you, to behold (true wisdom). [The dog: vr.ka, a wolf, here equated with a s'va_n, a dog. Figuratively, vr.ka is A_ditya,t he sun, from whose grasp or over-powering radiance, the As'vins are said to have rescued the dawn, upon her appeal to them]. 1.116.15 The foot of (Vispala_, the wife of) Khela, was cut off, like the wing of a bird, in an engagement by night; immediately you gave her a metallic leg, that she might walk, the hidden treasure (of the enemy being the object of the conflict). [Khela was a king; Agastya was his purohita. Through his prayers the As'vins gave Vis'ala_ a metallic leg]. 1.116.16 When his father caused,R.jra_s'va_, as he was giving to a she-wolf a hundred sheep cut up in pieces, to become blind, you, Dasras, physicians (of the gods), gave him eyes (that had been) unable to find their way, with which he might see. [R.jra_s'va was one of the sons of Vr.s.a_gir; a she-wolf: vr.ka_ was one of the asses of the As'vins in disguise, to test his charitable disposition; but, as he exacted the sheep from the people, his father was angry, and caused him to lose his eyesight, which the As'vins restored to him]. 1.116.17The daughter of the sun ascended your car, (like a runner) to a goal; when you won (the race) with your swift horse, all the gods looked on with (anxious hearts), and you, 10

Na_satyas, were associated with glory. [Su_rya was desirous of giving his daughter Su_rya to Soma, but all the gods desired her as a wife; they agreed that he who should first reach the sun, as a goal should wed the damsel. The As'vins were victorious, and Su_rya, well pleased by their success, rushed immediately into their chariot]. 1.116.18 When, As'vins, being invited, you went to his dwelling (to give due rewards) to Divoda_sa, offering oblations, then your helping chariot conveyed (food and) treasure, and the bull and the porpoise were yoked together. [The bull and the porpoise: the Vr.s.abha and S'im.s'uma_ra. The latter is a graha, which is properly an alligator; but the s'im.s'uma_ra is a gangetic porpoise; they were yoked to the car of the As'vins, to display their power]. 1.116.19 Na_satyas, bearing strength and wealth with posterity and vigour-sustaining food, you came, with one intention, to the family of Jahnu, (provide) with (sacrificial) viands, and possessing a third portion of the daily (offerings). [Family of Jahnu: ja_hnavi_, an adjective of praja_, progeny (jahnoh praja_m). Jahnu is a Mahar.s.i; he is a prince of the lunar dynasty]. 1.116.20 Undecaying Na_satyas, you bore away by night, in your foe-overwhelming car, Ja_hus.a, surrounded on every side by (enemies), through practicable roads, and went to (inaccessible) mountains. [Ja_hus.a: the name of a king]. 1.116.21 You preserved Vas'a, As'vins, (that he might obtain) in a single day a thousand acceptable gifts; showerers (of benefits), associated with Indra, you destroyed the malignant enemies of Pr.thus'ravas. [Vas'a, a r.s.i, received daily presents to the number of one thousand]. 1.116.22 You raised the water from the bottom to the top of the well, for the drinking of S'ara, the son of R.citka, and by your powers, Na_satyas, you filled, for the sake of the weary S'ayu, the barren cow (with milk). [S'ara = A_rcitka, son of R.citka]. 1.116.23 Na_satyas, by your acts you restored to Vis'vaka, the son of Kr.s.n.a, soliciting your protection, adoring you, and a lover of rectitude, hs son Vis.n.a_pu, (welcome) to his sight as an animal that has been lost. [Kr.s.n.a, Vis'vaka and Vis.n.a_pu were r.s.is]. 1.116.24 As'vins, you raised up, like Soma in a ladle, Rebha, who for ten nights and nine days, had lain (in a well), bound with tight bonds, wounded, immersed, and suffering distress form the water. 1.116.25 Thus, As'vins, have I declared your exploits; may I become the master (of this place), having abundant cattle and a numerous progeny, and retaining my sight, and enjoying a long life; may I enter into old age, as (a master enters) his house.

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1.117.01 As'vins for your gratification by the pleasant Soma, your ancient worshipper adores you; the offering is poured upon the sacred gras, thehymn is ready (for repetition); come, Na_satyas, with food and with vigour. 1.117.02 With that car, As'vins, which, rapid as thought, drawn by good horses, appears before men, and withwhich you repair to the dwelling of the virtuous, come, leaders of (sacrifice), to our abode. 1.117.03 You liberated, leaders (of rites), the sage Atri, who was venerated by the five classes of men from the wicked prison, together with his troop (of children), destroying his enemies and baffling, showerers (of benefits), the devices of the malignant Dasyus. 1.117.04 Leaders (of sacrifice), showerers (of benefits), you restored Rebha, cast by unassailable (enemies) into the water, and wounded, like a (sick) horse, by your (healing) skill; your ancient 13

exploits do not fade (from recollection). 1.117.05 You extricated, Dasras, the sage (Vandana_) cast into a well, like a handsome and splendid ornament designed for embellishment, and (lying) As'vins, like one sleepin gon the lap of the earth or like the sun disappearing in darkness. 1.117.06 That (exploit) of yours, leaders (of sacrifice), is to be celebrated, Na_satyas, by Kaks.i_vat, of the race of Pajra, when you filled for the (expectant) man a hundred vases of sweet (liquors) from the hoof of your fleet horse. 1.117.07 You restored, leaders (of sacrifices), Vis.n.a_pu (his lost son) to Vis'vaka, the son of Kr.s.n.a, when he praised you; you bestowed, As'vins, a husband upon Ghos.a_, growing old and tarrying inher father's dwelling. [Ghos.a_ was the daughter of Kaks.i_vat; she was a leper, and therefore, unfit to be married; but when advanced in years, she prayed to the As'vins, who healed her leprosy and restored her to youth and beauty, so that she obtained a husband]. 1.117.08 You gave, As'vins, a lovely bride to S'ya_va_; you gave sight to Kan.va, unable to see his way; showerers (of benefits), the deed is to be glorified by which you gave hearing to the son of Nr.s.ad. [S'ya_va, a r.s.i, had the black leprosy, but was cured of it by the As'vins, and consequently married. The son of Nr.s.ad is a r.s.i]. 1.117.09 As'vins, who assume many forms, you gave to Pedu a swift horse, the bringer of a thousand (treasures), powerful, irresistible, the destroyer of foes, the object of praise, the bearer (over dangers). 1.117.10 Liberal givers, these your exploits are to be celebrated, and the resounding prayer propitiates you while abiding in heaven and earth; when the descendants of Pajra invite you, As'vins, come with food, and grant strength to the sage (who worships you). 1.117.11 As'vins, glorified by the praises of the son (of the jar), and giving food, nourishers (of men), to the sage (Bharadva_ja), exalted by Agastya withprayer, you restored Na_satyas, Vis.pala_. [The son of the jar: sunu = son; kubha_t prasuta, i.e. Agastya; vipra_ya = Bharadva_ja_ya r.s.aye]. 1.117.12 Wither were you going, sons of heaven, showerers (of benefits), when, on your way to the dwellingof Ka_vya, (to receive his) adoration, you raised up (Rebha), As'vins, on the tenth day, like a buried vessel full of gold? 1.117.13 You rendered, by your power, As'vins, the aged Cyavana again young; the daughter of the sun, Na_satyas, invested your chariot with beauty. 1.117.14 Dissipators of affliction, as you were praised with former praises by Tugra, so were you again adored (by him), when you brought Bhujyu safe from the tossing ocean with swift ships and rapid horses. [vibhih = swift naubhih (ships)]. 1.117.15 Th sun of Tugra, brought back by you, As'vins, (to his father), glorified you whenhe ahd crossed the ocean in safety, and you bore him, showerers (of benefits), with your wellharnessed car, swift as thought, to safety. 1.117.16 The quail glorified you, As'vins, when you saved her from the mouth of the wolf; you carried off (Ja_hus.a) to the top of the mountain in your triumphant chariot; and slew the son of Vis.va_n~c with a poisoned (arrow). [Vis.va_n~c is an asura, The text has, 'whose son you killed with poison'; a poisoned arrow is implied]. 1.117.17 You restored eyes to R.jra_s'va, who, on presenting a hundred sheep to the she-wolf, had been condemned to darkness by his indignant father, and gave light to the blind, wherewith to behold all things. 1.117.18 (Desiring) that the enjoyment (arising from the perfection) of the senses (should be restored to the blind), the she-wolf invoked you, (saying), "As'vins, showerers (of benefits), 14

leaders (of sacrifices), R.jra_s'va, (lavish) as a youthful gallant, (has given me) a hundred and one sheep, cutting them into fragments". 1.117.19 As'vins, your powerful protection is the source of happiness; worthy of laudation, you have made whole the maimed; therefore, has the intelligent (Ghos.a_) called upon you; showerers (of benefits) come hither with your succours. 1.117.20 Dasras, you fille dthe milkless, barren, and emaciated cow of S'ayu with milk; you brought, by your powers, the daughter of Purumitra, as a wife, of Vimada. [Purumitra was a ra_ja_]. 1.117.21 As'vins, causing the barley to be sown (in the fields that had been prepared) by the plough; milking (the clouds) for the sake of Manu; destroying the Dasyu with the thunderbolt; you have bestowed brilliant light upon the A_rya. [A_rya_ya: vidus.e, to the sage, that is to Manu; Manus.a = Manu]. 1.117.22 You replaced, As'vins, with the head of a horse, (the head of) Dadhyan~c, the son of Atharvan, and, true to his promise, he revealed to you the mystic knowledge which he had learned from Tvas.t.a_, and which was as a ligature of the waist to you. [Tvas.t.a_ = Indra; the knowlege was kaks.yam. va_m = a girdle to you both; strengthening them to perform religious rites]. 1.117.23 Sapient As'vins, I ever solicit your favour; protect all my religious duties, and grant, Na_satyas, abundant and excellent wealth, together with offsprings. 1.117.24 Liberal As'vins, leaders (of sacrifices), you gave to Vadhr.mati her son Hiran.yahasta; bounteous As'vins, you restored to life the triply-mutilated S'ya_va. [S'ya_va was cut into three pieces by the asuras; the pieces were reunited into one by the As'vins]. 1.117.25 These, your ancient exploits, As'vins, our forefathers have celebrated, and we offer adoration to you, showerers (of benefits) repeating your praises, accompanied by our dependants.

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1.118.01 May your elegant and rich car, swift as a hawk, come, As'vins, to our presence, fo rit as quick as the mind of man, surmounted, showerers (of benefits) by three columns, and rapid as the wind. 1.118.02 Come to us with your tri-columnar, triangular, three-wheeled, and well-constructed car; replenish our cows (with milk), give spirit to our horses, and augment, As'vins, our posterity. 1.118.03 Dasras (having come) with your quick-moving well-constructed car, hear this hymn, (recited by one) who reveres you; do not the ancient sages say that you are most prompt, As'vins, (to avert) poverty from the worshipper? 1.118.04 May your quick-moving, prancing steeds, rapid as hawks, yoked to your car, bear you, As'vins, (hither), who, quick as (falling) water, like vultures flying through the air, convey you, Na_satyas, to the sacrifice. 1.118.05 Leaders (of sacrifice), the youthful daughter of Su_rya ascended, delighted, this your car; may your strong-bodied prancing, fleet, and shining horses, bring you near us. 1.118.06 By your deeds, Dasras, you raised up Vandana_, and, showerers (of benefits), Rebha; you bore the son of Tugra over the sea, and made Cyavana young. 16

1.118.07 You (gave relief) to the imprisoned Atri, (quenching the) scorching heat, and fed him with grateful food; solicitous of worthy praise, you gave sight of Kan.va, blinded (by darkness). 1.118.08 You filled his cow with milk, As'vins, for the ancient S'ayu, when imploring (yoru aid); you liberated the quail from danger; you gave a leg to Vis'pala_. 1.118.09 You gave to Pedu, As'vins, the white and foe-trampling steed which you had received from Indra, loud-neighing (in battle), defying enemies, high-spirited, the acquirer of a thousand tresures, vigorous, and firm in body. 1.118.10 Earnestly we call you, leaders (of the sacrifice), such (as you have been described), and who are well born, to our succour, soliciting, As'vins, wealth; contented with our laudations, come to us with your wealthy car, to brign us felicity. 1.118.11 Come to us, auspicious Na_satyas, with the fresh velocity of a hawk; bearing an oblation, I invoke you, As'vins, at the rising of the ever constant dawn.

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1.119.01 Desiringfood, I invoke, (As'vins), to support my life, your wonderful car, swift as thought, drawn by fleet horses, worthy of veneration, many-bannered, bringing rain, containing wealth, abundantly yielding delight, and conferring riches. 1.119.02 Upon its moving, our minds have been raised on high in praise; our hymns reach (the As'vins). I sweeten the oblation; the assistants come nigh; U_rja_ni, (the daughter of the sun), has ascended, As'vins, your car. 1.119.03 When devout and unnumbered (men), victorious in battle, mutually contending for wealth, come together, your car, As'vins, is perceived on its downward course, in which you bear excellent (treasure) to the worshipper. 1.119.04 You brought back to his ancestor (Bhujyu, who, borne by his own steeds, had perished), (but that you rescued him) with your self-harnessed horses, and sent showerers (o fbenefits), to his distant dwellign; and great was the succour whichit is know you rendered to Divoda_sa. 1.119.05 As'vins, your admirable (horses) bore the car which you had carnessed, (first) to the goal, for the sake of honour, and the damsel, who was the prize, came through affection, to you, and acknowledged your (husbandship), saying, "you are (my) lords". 1.119.06 You preserved Rebha from the violence around him; you quenched with snow, for Atri, the scorching heat; you generated milk in the cow of S'ayu; and (by you) was Vandana_ endowed with prolonged life. 1.119.07 Skillful Dasras, you restored Vandana_, when debilitated by old age, as a (wheelwright repairs a worn-out) car; (moved) by his praises, you brought forth the sage (Va_madeva) from the womb; may your (glorious) deeds be (displayed) for him who in this place offers you worship. [Va_madeva, the sage, invoked the aid of the As'vins, whilst yet in his mother's womb]. 1.119.08 You repaired to him who, aflicted by the abandonment of his own father, praised you from afar; hence your prompt and wonderful succours have been wished to be at hand (by all). [Allusion is to Bhujyu, whom his father, Tugra, had abandoned, or rather, perhaps, was unable to succour]. 1.119.09 That honey-seeking bee also murmured your praise; the son of Us;ij invokes you to the exhilaratin of Soma; you conciliated the mind of Dadhyan~c, so that, provided with the head of a horse, he taught you (the mystic science). 1.119.10 As'vins, you gave to Pedu the white (horse) desired by many, the breaker-through of combatants, shining, unconquerable by foes in battle, fit for every work; like Indra, the conquerer of men.

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1.139.01 May our prayers be heard, I place before (me) Agni with reverence; we have recourse to his celestial might; we have recourse to Indra and to Va_yu; which doing, a new (hymn) has been addressed (by us) to the radiant navel (of the earth); and thereupon may our pious rites attain the gods; may our pious rites attain the presence of the gods. [astu sraus.at = asya_h stuter s'ravan.am bhavatu, may there be a hearing of this hymn, or s'rota_ bhavatu = may Agni or other deity be a hearer. s'raus.at. is an exclamation uttered when the butter is poured upon the fire, on the altar, as an offering to the gods. The radiant navel of the earth: may refer to the altar or the 19

sacrifice; yajn~am a_hur bhuvanasya na_bhim (yajama_hurbhuvanasya na_bhim--Taittiri_ya Sam.hita_ 7.4.17.2), they have called the sacrifice the navel of the world; the text adds vivasvati = di_ptimat, shining; Vivasvat may also refer to the Sun-god]. 1.139.02 Mitra and Varun.a, bestow (upon us) abundantly that unenduring water which you obtain from the sun, through your own energy; through the inherent energy of the vigorous; may we thus behold your golden (forms) in our halls of sacrifice, (brought thither) by our sacred rites, and by our thoughts and senses (intent upon you); by our senses (intent upon offering) the Soma. 1.139.03 As'vins, men who desire to glorify you with (their) hymns, cause, as it were, their praises to be heard, propitiating you with oblations; for, from you, who are possessed of all opulence, (they obtain) every kind of wealth and abundant food. Dasras, the fellies (of the wheels) of your honey-laden car drop honey, (carried) in your golden (car). [hiran.yaye rathe dasra_ hiran.yaye: the epithet means 'golden'; the first occurrence is interpreted as madhupu_rn.a = prus.a_yante pavayah (pavi_ rathanemirbhavati yadvipuna_ti bhu_mim--Nirukta 5.5), the circumferences of the wheels distil (ks.aranti sravanti), or scatter honey, as they revolve; in the second occurrence, hirn.yaye is explained as 'pleasing, heart-delighting', hr.dayaraman.a; and to provide an assumed ellipse, by havir-vahatam, 'convey the oblation in your delightful chariot']. 1.139.04 Dasras, your purpose is known; you would repair to heaven; your charioteers harness (your steeds) for your heavenward journey; the horses that injure not (the car) on your journey to heaven. We have placed you, Dasras, in your golden three-shafted chariot, going by an (easy) road to heaven, humiliators (of enemies), and principal regulators of the rain. [an~jasa_ s'a_sata_ rajas = udakam, water; vr.s.ti-laks.an.am, metony for rain]. 1.139.05 Enriched by holy rites, grant us, by day and night, (all good things), on account of our pious acts; never may your donations, never may our (donations), be withheld. 1.139.06 Indra, showerer (of blessings), these effused Soma, (expressed) by stones, and which have sprung (from mountain), are for your drinking; these libations have burst forth for you; may they satisfy you as an offering presented (in the hope of receiving) great and wonderful riches. Acceptor of laudations, come to us, glorified by our hymns; come to us well pleased. 1.139.07 Agni, listen attentively when you are praised by us, and repeat (those praises) to the gods who are entitled to worship; to the royal (deities) entitled to worship; on which accoun tthe gods gave to the An:girasas the cow which Aryaman milked for (you), the maker (of all), together with the gods; that cow (the nature of which you have said), he, along with me, comprehends. [The cow which Aryaman milked: The legend is tha An:girasas, having propitiated the gods, solicited the gift of a cow; the gods them the cow of plenty, but they were unable to milk her, and applied to Aryaman, who drew from the cow milk convertible to butter for oblations to fire. es.a ta_m veda me saca_ = he knows her along with me; this is explained: aryama_ham api ja_na_mi, either I, Aryama_ , or I and Aryama_ know her]. 1.139.08 Never, Maruts, may your glorious energies be exerted against us; may our (riches) never diminish; never may our towns decay; and may whatever is wonderful, admirable immortal, or (whatever is recognized to be living), from its sound, that has been yours from age to age, (devolve) upon us; whatever is most difficult (of attainment) bestow upon us; whatever is most difficult (to be attained). [ghos.a_t = ghos.a_h, pl. sounds, noises; and by metonymy, those who utter them, either cattle or people]. 1.139.09 The ancient Dadhyan~c, An:giras, Priyamedha, Kan.va, Atri, Manu, have known my birth; they who were of old and Manu have known (my progenitors); for of them is long life amongst the gods, and in them is our existence; for the sake of their nigh station, I adore (the gods) with praise; I worship Indra and Agni with praise. [My birth: the birth of me, Parucchepas, 20

the r.s.i of the hymn; he is subsequent to them or of more recent date. te me pu_rve manur viduh: added is pitra_di_n, fathers; Manu = manavah, pl., i.e. former Manus; pu_rve is applied to those previously named, Dadhyan~c and the rest; manavas'ca and the Manus. In them is our existence: asma_kam tes.u na_bhayah, in them are our 'navels'; explained as vital airs, in connection with life, ji_vena saha sam.bandhavantah pra_n.a_h; or by sacrifices in relation to their rewards, phalena sam.baddha_h ya_ga_h]. 1.139.10 Let the invoker (of the gods) offer sacrifice, and may they, desirous of the offering, (partake of) the acceptable (libation); Br.haspati himself, desiring (the libation), celebrates worship with libations; with copious and excellent libations. We catch from a distant quarter the sound of the stones, whereby the performer of pious acts has of himself secured the waters (of the clouds); the performer of pious acts (has secured) many habitations. [atmana_ adha_rayad ararinda_ni (ararinda_ni dhvasmanvat--Nirukta 1.12.16= vr.s.ti laks.an.a_nyudaka_ni atmana_ dharayati, he sustains by himself the waters, that is, the rains; or, he produces such waters by his sacrifices, tadr.s'an.yudakam ya_gena utpa_dayati, rain being the result of worship. Pious acts: sakratuh = yajama_na or Br.haspati, as the adhvaryu, or ministering priest]. 1.139.11 Gods who are eleven in heaven; who are eleven on earth; and who are eleven dwelling with glory in mid-air; may you be pleased with our sacrifice. [tisrah eva devata_h (Nirukta 7.5)].

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6.016.01 You, Agni, have been appointed by the gods, the ministrant fo men, the descendants of manu, at all sacrifices. 6.016.02 Therefore do you at our sacrifice offer oblations to the great deities with exhilarating 23

flames; bring hither the gods; offer them worship. 6.016.03 Agni, doere of great deeds, creator, you know (how to travel over) with speed (great) roads and (little) paths at sacrifices. [adhvanah pathas'ca = maha_ma_rga_n, great roads; ks.udra ma_rga_ms'ca, little roads or paths; i.e. put the sacrificer into the right way when he is going wrong in the ceremonial or sacrifice]. 6.016.04 Bharata, with the presenters of the oblation, has joyfully praised you in your (two-fold capacity), and has worshipped you, the adorable, with sacrifices. [Bharata: the ra_ja_, the son of Dus.yanta; in your two-fold capacity: in the character of bestowing what is wished for and removing wht is undesired; is.t.a pra_ptyanis.t.a pariha_raru_pen.a_gnir dvidha_]. 6.016.05 As you have conferred these many blessings upon Divoda_sa when presenting libations, (so now grant them) to the (actual) offerer, Bharadva_ja. 6.016.06 Hearing the adoration of the sage, do you, who are the immortal messenger, bring hither the celestial people. 6.016.07 Pious mortals invoke you, divine Agni, at sacrifices, to convey their (sacrificial) food to the gods. 6.016.08 I glorify your splendour and the acts of you the liberal giver all who, (through your favour) enjoy their desires, glorify you. 6.016.09 You have been appointed by manu, the invoker of the gods, the most wise bearer of oblations (to them) by your mouth; worship, Agni, the people of heaven. 6.016.10 Come, Agni, to the (sacrificial) fod; being lauded, (come) to convey the oblation (to the gods); sit down as the ministrant priest upon the sacred grass. 6.016.11 We augment you, An:giras, with fuel and with butter; blaze fiercely, youngest (of the gods). 6.016.12 Divine Agni, bestow upon us (wealth), excellent, great and (comprehending) worthy male descendants. [suvi_ra = suvi_rya, male descendants]. 6.016.13 The sage, Atharvan, extracted you from upon the lotus-leaf, the head, the support of the universe. [tvam pus.kara_d adhi atharvo nirmanthata, murdhno vis.vasya va_ghatah: pus.kara_dadhi = pus.karaparn.e, lotus-leaf; pus.kara parn.e praja_patir bhu_mim aparthayat = upon the lotus-leaf praja_pati made manifest the earth, a probable acount of the creation in Manu; since it supported the earth, it may be termed the head, mu_rdhan, or the bearer, va_ghata for va_haka, of all things; atharvan means pra_n.a, vital air extracted fire or animal heat from the water, pra_n.a udakasaka_s'a_d Agnim nis'es.an.a mathitava_n; va_ghata = r.tvij, the ministrant priest; so the sentence is explained: all the priests churned you out of the head or top of the wood of attrition]. 6.016.14 The r.s.i, Dadhyan~c, the son of Atharvan, kindled the slayer of Vr.tra, the destroyer of the cities of Asuras. 6.016.15 (The r.s.i) Pa_thya, the showerer, kindled you the destroyer of the Dasyu, the winner of spoil in battle. 6.016.16 Come, Agni, that I may address to you other praises in this manner; augment with these libations. [Other praises in this maner: ittthetara_ girah = ittha, anena praka_ren.a, thus, in this manner; also, offered by others, or by the asuras, asuraih kr.ta_;Aitareya Bra_hman.a 3.49 cites this r.ca: other than those offered to the gods, or adverse to the gods, propitiatory of the asuras, asurebhyah hitah devava_kya_ditara devavirodhinya ityarthah]. 6.016.17 Wheresoever, and upon whatsoever your mind is directed, you bestow uncommon vigour, and there you make your abode. 6.016.18 Let not your full (blaze) be distressing to the eye, giver of dwellings to your humble 24

votaries, and therefore accept our worship. [Distressing to the eye: nahi pu_rtam aks.ipadbhuvat = aks.ipat aks.n.o pata_kam vina_s'akam, the offender or destroyer of the eye]. 6.016.19 Agni, the bearer, (of oblations), the destroyer of the enemies of Divopa_sa, the cognizant of many, the protector of the good, has been brought hither (by our praises). 6.016.20 Surpassing all earthly things, may he bestow upon us riches, destroying his enemies by his greatness, unresisted, unassailed. 6.016.21 You, have overspread, Agni, this vast (firmament) with radiant concentrated lustre, recent like that of old. 6.016.22 Sing praise and offer sacrifice, my friends, to the foe-discomfiting, the creator, Agni. 6.016.23 May that Agni indeed sit down (at our sacrifice), who in every age of man has been the invoker of the gods, doer of wise deeds, the messenger of the gods, the bearer of oblations. 6.016.24 Giver of dwellings, worship on this occasion, the two regal divinities, Mitra and Varun.a, whose acts are holy, the A_dityas, the company of the Maruts, and heaven. 6.016.25 Son of strength, Agni, the glorious radiance of you who are immortal, bestows food upon (your) mortal worshipper. 6.016.26 May the donor (of the oblation), propitiating you by his acts today, be exalted, and (rendered) very opulent; may (such) mortal be diligent in (your) praise. 6.016.27 Those, Agni, who are protected by you, wishing for the whole (term of) life (obtain it), overcoming hostile assailants, destroying hostile assailants. 6.016.28 May Agni, with his sharp flame, demolish the devourer (of the oblation); may Agni grant us riches. 6.016.29 Ja_tavedas, all-beholdeer, bring us wealth with good posterity; doer of good deeds, destroy the ra_ks.asas. 6.016.30 Preserve us, Ja_tavedas, from sin; enunciator of prayer, protect us from the malevolent. [Enunciator: brahman.askave = mantrasya s'abdayita_, sounder or articulator of prayer; for Agni, it is said, generated articulate sound, and the Smr.ti is cited as authority; manah ka_ya_gnim ahanti, sa prerayati manutam, marutas-tu urasi caran mandiam janayati svaram, mind excites the fire of the body, that excites the collective vital airs, and they, passing into the breast, engender agreeable, articulate sound. 6.016.31 The malevolent mortal who threatens us with murderous weapon; defend us from him, and also from sin. 6.016.32 Scatter, divine Agni, by your flame, that evil-doer, the man who seeks to kill us. 6.016.33 Subduer of foes, grant to Bharadva_ja infinite happiness and desirable wealth. 6.016.34 May Agni, propitiated by praise, desirous of (sacrificial) affluence, kindled, bright, and fed with burnt-offerings, destroy all adversaries. [Alternative interpretation: Agni entirely destroys all by manifold worship]. 6.016.35 Radiant in the embryo of the maternal (earth), on the imperishable (altar); the cherisher of the paternal (heaven), sitting on the seat of sacrifice. [The cherisher: he ma_tuh, putus.pita_: the mother of Agni is the earth, the father is heaven; Agni is said to be the father or fosterer of his parent heaven, by transmitting to it the flame and smoke of burnt-offerings]. 6.016.36 Bring to us, Ja_tavedas, all-beholder, food with progeny; such (food) as is brilliant in heaven. 6.016.37 Strength-begotten Agni, we, offering (sacrificial) food, address praises to you who are of pleasing aspect. 6.016.38 We have recourse, Agni, to the shelter of you, the lustrous, the golden-feathered, as to the shade (of a tree). 25

6.016.39 You, Agni, who are like a fierce archer, or like a sharp-horned bull, have destroyed the cities (of the asuras). [Agni is identified with Rudra as the destoyer of the cities of Tripura: rudro va_ es.o yad agnih]. 6.016.40 (Worship) that Agni whom (the priests) bear in their hands like a new-born babe; the devourer (of the oblation), the (conveyer of the) holy sacrifices of men. 6.016.41 Conduct the divine (Agni), the bestower of infinite wealth, to (receive charge of) the food of the gods; let him sit down on his appropriate seat. 6.016.42 (Welcome him) as soon as born, like a beloved guest, and place the lord of the mansion upon the sacred (altar) whence wisdom is derived. [This and previous r.ca are recited when the fire that has been produced by attrition is applied to kindle the a_havani_ya, or fire of burntofferings; Aitareya Bra_hman.a 1.16; Agni is the guest, not the sacriicer, of the a_havani_ya fire; ja_tavedasi is applied to the latter, as knowing the birth of the churned fire, to whom it is a giver of delight, s'yona, sukhakara, by giving him a welcome reception. 6.016.43 Harness, divine Agni, your well-trained horses, who bear you quickly to the sacrifice. [manyave = yajn~aya, manyur ya_hah; Yajus. 13.36]. 6.016.44 Come, Agni, to our presence, bring hither the gods to partake of the (sacrificial) viands, to drink the Soma. 6.016.45 Blaze up, Agni, bearer of oblations; shine, undecaying Agni, radiant with undecaying lustre. 6.016.46 Whatever mortal, offering oblations, worships a deity with (sacrificial) food, let him at the ceremony also worship Agni, the invoker of heaven and earth, the sacrificer with truth; let him adore (Agni) with uplifted hands. 6.016.47 We offer to you, Agni, the oblation sanctified by the heart, and (identified) with the sacred verse may the vigorous bulls and the cows be (as such an oblation) to you. [May the vigorous bulls and the cows: te te bhavantu u_ks.an.a rs.abha_so vas'a_ uta, may these vigorous bulls or the cows be for you; an intimation of their being offered to Agni as victims rs.abhavas.a_ru_pen.a parin.atam san tvabhaks.a n.a_ya (havir) bhavatu, let the oblation, matured in the form of bulls or cows, be for your food]. 6.016.48 The gods kindle Agni as the chief (of them); as the especial desroyer of Vr.tra; by whom the treasures (of the asuras) are carried off; by whom the ra_ks.asas are destroyed.

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9.108.01 Soma,who are most sweet-flavoured, most intelligent, the exhilarator, flow for Indra, the great, the most brilliant,the exhilarator. 9.108.02 By drinking whom the showerer Indra is invigorated, by drinking you who are the beholder of everything, the intelligent (Indra) reaches the viands (of the enemy) as a horse (reaches) the battle. 9.108.03 For you, Pavama_na, who aremost brilliant quickly shout to the races of the gods for (the sake of their) immortality. 9.108.04 (You) through whom Dadhyan~c tthe offerer of the nine days' rites opened (the cave), through whom the r.s.is recovered (the stolen cows), through whom under the protection of the gods the worshippers obtained the sustenance of the delicious (ambrosial water). 9.108.05 This (Soma) when effused flows most exhilarating through the woollen fleece, sporting 29

like a wave of water. 9.108.06 You who by your might extricated from the rock the quick-moving kine abiding in the waters, you have spread out a pasturage for cattle and horses; like a mailed (warrior) slay (the asuras), brave (Soma).[Interpretation: Who by his might cut the quick-moving waters of the firmament from out of the cloud, you get a herd of cattle and horses]. 9.108.07 Pour forth (the Soma), sprinkle it round like a horse, adorable, dispenser of rain, dispenser of light, showerer of fluid, swimming in water. 9.108.08 Thousand-streamed, showererof benefits, augmenter of water, affectionate; (pour it forth) for the race of the gods which water-born is fostered by the water, the king, the god, the true, the great. 9.108.09 Divine (Soma) lord of viands, who are devoted to the gods, bestow upon us brilliant and abundant food; separate the mid-aerial receptacle. 9.108.10 Come, powerful (Soma) effused into the cups, like a prince the sustainer of the people; pour the course of the waters, the rain fromheaven; accomplish the rites for the worshipper who seeks cattle. [Into the cups: adhis'avana phalaka_yah, in the planks of the press]. 9.108.11 Him have they milked from heaven, the shedder of exhilarating juice, the thousandstreamed, the showerer (of benefits), bearing all treasures. 9.108.12 The showerer (of benefits) is manifested begetting (light) immortal, destroying the darkness with (his) radiance; glorified by the wise he has assumed his shining robe; the triple (oblation is supported) by his act. [He has assumed his shining robe: he has blended himself with the milk, for the sake of being cleansed]. 9.108.13 The Soma has been effused who is the bringer of treasures, the bringer of riches, the bringer of food, the bringer of fair homes. 9.108.14 Our (Soma) which Indra drinks, which the Maruts drink and Bhaga with Aryaman; through which we propitiate Mitra and Varun.a and Indra, to obtain his powerful protection. 9.108.15 Soma, collected by the priests, well-armed, most exhilarating, most sweet-flavoured, flow for Indra to drink. 9.108.16 Soma, enter the Somadha_na, Indra's heart, as the rivers (enter) the sea agreeable to Mitra, Varun.a and Va_yu, the chief stay of heaven.

10.048.01 I am the principal lord of wealth; I conquer the treasure of many (adversaries); living beings call upon me as (sons call upon) a father; I bestow food on the donor of oblations. 10.048.02 I, Indra, amd the strtiker off of the head of the son of Atharvan, I generated the waters from above the cloud for the sake of Trita. I carried off their wealth from the Dasyus; taming the clouds for Dadhyan~c, the son of Ma_taris'van. [Son of Atharvan: named Dadhyan~c: S'atapatha Bra_hman.a 14.5.16; RV 1.116.12; Trita = Tria A_ptya, who had fallen into a well; RV 10.33.2; Dadhyan~c, son of Ma_taris'van: different from another Dadhyan~c the son of Atharvan; ma_taris'vanah putrah: S'atapatha Bra_hman.a 14.2.5.16]. 10.048.03 For me Tvas.t.a_ fabricated the metal thunderbolt; in me the gods have concentrated pious acts; my lustre is insurmountable, like that of the Sun; men acknowledge me as lord in consequence of what I have done, and of what I shall do. [My lustre is the Sun: my army is hard 30

to overcome, like the sun's lustre; ani_ka = lit., face]. 10.048.04 (I conquered) by my shaft this (wealth) comprehending kine, horses, herds, water, and gold; I give many thousands to the donor (of the oblation) when libations and praises have afforded me delight. 10.048.05 I, Indra, am not surpassed in affluence; I never yield to death; pouring forth the Soma libation, ask of me wealth; O men, forfeit not my friendship. 10.048.06 I destroy those powerful (enemies) two by two who defy the (wielder of the) thunderbolt, Indra, to battle, I slew them challenging (me to fight) with (great) slaughter, the unbending (slaying) the bending, the uttering stern (menaces). [Indra: indram, the destroyer of foes]. 10.048.07 Single, I overcome my single (adversary); (over-powering them) I overcome two foes; what can three effect (against me)? I smite numerous (adversaries) like sheaves (of grain) on the threshing-floor; can my enemies who know not Indra revile me? 10.048.08 I prepared Atithigva for (the protection of) the Gun:gus, I upheld him, the destroyer of enemies, as sustenance among the people; when I gained renown in the great Vr.tra-battle, in which Parn.aya and Karan~ja were slain.[I prepared: is.karam = the preparer; Atithigva: i.e., the r.s.i divoda_sa, the son of Atithigu; or, atithigva = hospitable; gun:gus = name of a people; parn.aya and karan~ja = names of asuras]. 10.048.09 My praiser, the refuge (of all), was food to enjoy; (him, men) use in two ways, to search for their cattle, and to be their freiend, when I bestow upon him a weapon in his battles, and make him worthy of celebrity and praise. [When I bestow: when I appropriate]. 10.048.10 The Soma is seen in one of the two (combatants); the cowherd (Indra) manifests the other with his thunderbolt; the latter warring against the sharp-horned bull, remains in great (darkness) bound by the victor. [nema = part, half; or, one of two (combatants); the combatants are the yas.t.a_ who offers libations and the yas.t.a_, one who does not; the latter assails the bull, Indra]. 10.048.11 The divine (Indra) abandons not the abode of the deities, the A_dityas, the Vasus, and the Rudriyas; may they fashion me for auspicious vigour, undefeated, unharmed, unconquered. https://www.scribd.com/doc/293646698/Indus-Valley-Cones-Cakes-and-Archaeologists-S-vPradhan-Annals-of-the-Bhandarkar-Oriental-Research-Institute-Vol-80-No-1-4-1999-Pp-43-5 See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2013/05/functions-served-by-terracotta-cakes-of.html Functions served by terracotta cakes of Indus civilization: Like ANE tokens for counting metal and alloy ingots

31

The

Tiny

Steatite

Seals

of

Harappa

Richard H. Meadow Above: Three groups of tablets discovered at Harappa in 1997. "In the last four editions of South Asian Archaeology, we have given accounts of the different seasons of excavation at Harappa from 1989 to 1995 (4th season: Dales & Kenoyer 1992; 5th season: Kenoyer 1993; 6th season: Mcadow & Kenoyer 1994; 7th and 8th seasons: Meadow & Kenoyer 1997; see also Mcadow, ed. 1991: 1st through 5th seasons). In this edition we continue the tradition for the 9th and 10th seasons but focus on two specific areas of the site - the north end of Mound AB test trenched in 1996 (Kenoyer & Meadow, this volume) and the eastern margin of Mound E excavated since the 1993 season (this paper). Only partially covered in these reports is a particularly significant aspect ofthe work ofthe Harappa Archaeological Research Project (HARP) carried out during the 9th and 10th seasons. This involves an effort to re-investigate previously excavated parts of Harappa (Vats 1940; Wheeler 1947)" Kenoyer2000_The Tiny Steatite Seals of Harappa.pdf See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2013/04/bronze-age-writing-in-ancient-neareast.htmlBronze-age writing in ancient Near East: Two Samarra bowls and Warka vase See: Manuel, J. 2010. The Enigmatic Mushtikas and the Associated Triangular Terracotta Cakes: Some Observations. Ancient Asia 2:41-46, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5334/aa.10204

32

Shahr-i Sokhta, terracotta cakes, Periods II and III, I, MAI 1026 (front and rear); 2. MAI 376 (front and rear); 3. MAI 9794 (3a, photograph of front and read; 3b, drawing -- After Fig. 12 in E. Cortesi et al. 2008)

Salvatori

and

Vidale,

1997-79.

Inventory of terracotta cakes Shahr-i Sokhta. After Table 1 in E. Cortesi et al. 2008)

Number nd percentages of terracotta cakes found t Shahr-i Sokhta, total 31. (After Table 2 in E. Cortesi et al. 2008). "Terracotta cakes. Variously called 'terracotta tablets', 'triangular plaques' or 'triangular terracotta cakes' these artifacts (fig. 12, tables 2 and 3), made of coarse chaff-tempered clay, are a very common find in several protohistoric sites of the Subcontinent from the late Regionalization Era 33

(2800-2600 BCE) to the Localization Er (1900-1700 BCE). In this latter time0-span they frequently assume irregular round shapes, to finally retain the form of a lump of clay squeezed in the hand. Despite abudant and often unnecessary speculation, archaeological evidence demonstrates tht they were used in pyrotechnological activities, both in domestic and industrial contexts. The most likely hypothesis is tht these objets, in the common kitchen areas, were heated to boil water, and used as kiln setters in other contexts. Shahr-i Sokhta is the only site in the eastern Iranian plateau where such terracotta cakes, triangular or more rarely rectangular, are found in great quantity. Their use, perhaps by families or individuals having special ties with the Indus region, might have been part of simple domestic activities, but this conclusion is questioned by the fact that several terracotta cakes, at Shahr-i Sokhta, bear stamp seal impressions or other graphic signs (in more than 30% of the total cases). In many cases the actual impressions are poorly preserved, and require detailed study. Perhaps these objects used in some form of administrative practice. Although many specimens are fired or burnt, a small percentge of the 'cakes' found at Shahr-i Sokhta is unfired (table 2). On the other hand, their modification in the frame of one or more unknown semantic contexts is not unknown in the Indus valley. At Kalibangan (Haryana, India), for example, two terracotta cake fragments respectively bear a cluster of signs of the Indus writing system and a possible scene of animal sacrifice in front of a possible divinity. While a terracotta cake found at Chanhu-Daro (Sindh, Pakistan) bears a star-like design, anothr has three central depressions. The most important group of incised terracotta cakes comes from Lothal, where the record includes specimens with vertical strokes, central depressions, a V-shaped sign, a triangle, and a cross-like sign identical to those found at Shahr-i Sokhta. Tables 2 and 3 shows a complete inventory of these objects (most so far unpublished), their provenience and proposed dating, and finally summarize their frequencies across the Shahr-i Sokhta sequence. The data suggest that terracotta cakes are absent from Period I. This might be due to the very small amount of excavated deposits in the earliest settlement layers, but the almost total absence of terracotta cakes in layers dtable to phases 8-7, exposed in some extention both in the Eastern Residential Area and in the Centrl Quarter, is remarkable. The majority of the finds belong to Period II, phases 6 and 5 (mount together to about 60% of the cases). As the amount of sediments investigated for Period III in the settlement areas, for various reasons, is much less than what was done for Period II, the percentage of about 40% obtained for Period III (which, we believe, dates to the second hald of the 3rd millennium BCE) actually demonstrates that the use of terracotta cakes at Shahr-i Sokht continued to increase." (E. Cortesi, M. Tosi, A. Lazzari and M. Vidale, 2008, Cultural relationships beyond the Iranian plateau: the Helmand Civilization, Baluchistan and the Indus Valley in the 3rd millennium, pp. 17-18)

Indus terracotta nodules. Source: "Terra cotta 34

nodules and cakes of different shapes are common at most Indus sites. These objects appear to have been used in many different ways depending on their shape and size. The flat triangular and circular shaped cakes may have been heated and used for baking small triangular or circular shaped flat bread. The round and irregular shaped nodules have been found in cooking hearths and at the mouth of pottery kilns where they served as heat baffles. Broken and crushed nodule fragments were used instead of gravel for making a level foundation underneath brick walls."

Terracotta cake. Mohenjo-daro Excavation Number: VS3646. Location of find: 1, I, 37 (near NE corner of the room)."People have many different ideas about how these triangular blocks of clay were used. One idea is that they were placed inside kilns to keep in the heat while objects were fired. Another idea is that they were heated in a fire or oven, then placed in pots to boil liquids." Source: http://www.ancientindia.co.uk/indus/explore/nvs_tcake.html These terracotta cakes are like Ancient Near East tokens used for accounting, as elaborated by Denise Schmandt-Besserat in her pioneering researches. The context in which an incised terracotta cake was found at Kalibangan is instructive. I suggest that terracotta cakes were tokens to count the ingots produced in a 'fire-altar' and crucibles, by metallurgists of Sarasvati civilization. This system of incising is found in scores of miniature incised tablets of Harappa, incised with Indus writing. Some of these tablets are shaped like bun ingots, some are triangular and some are shaped like fish. Each shape should have had some semantic significance, e.g., fish may have connoted ayo 'fish' as a glyph; read rebus: ayas 'metal (alloy)'. A horned person on the Kalibangan terracotta cake described herein might have connoted: kōṭu 'horn'; rebus: खोट khōṭa 'A mass of metal (unwrought or of old metal melted down); an ingot or wedge. Hence 2 A lump or solid bit'; खोटसाळ khōṭasāḷa 'Alloyed--a metal'(Marathi) A stake associated with the fire-altar was ढाां गर [ ḍhāṅgara ] n 'A stout stake or stick as a prop to a Vine or scandent shrub]' (Marathi); rebus:ḍhaṅgar 'smith' (Maithili. Hindi)

Harppa. Two sides of a fish-shaped, incised tablet with Indus writing. Hundreds of inscribed texts on tablets are repetitions; it is, therefore, unlikely that hundreds of such inscribed tablets just contained the same ‘names’ composed of just five ‘alphabets’ or ‘syllables’, even after the direction of writing is firmed up as from right to left.

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S. Kalyanaraman Sarasvati Research Center December 19, 2015 Jonathan Mark Kenoyer Indus Valley Cones Cakes and Archaeologists S v Pradhan Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institut...

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