J Forensic Sci, 2013 doi: 10.1111/1556-4029.12211 Available online at: onlinelibrary.wiley.com
PAPER ANTHROPOLOGY
Tanya R. Peckmann,1 Ph.D.; Mary H. Manhein,2 M.A.; Ginesse A. Listi,2 Ph.D.; and Michel Fournier,3 B.Sc.
In Vivo Facial Tissue Depth for Canadian Aboriginal Children: A Case Study from Nova Scotia, Canada*
ABSTRACT: This study examines facial tissue depth in Canadian Aboriginal children. Using ultrasound, measurements were taken at 19
points on the faces of 392 individuals aged 3–18 years old. The relationships between tissue thickness, age, and sex were investigated. A positive linear trend may exist between tissue thickness and age for Aboriginal females and males at multiple points. No points show significant differences in facial tissue depth between males and females aged 3–8 years old; seven points show significant differences in facial tissue depth between males and females aged 9–13 years old; and five points show significant differences in facial tissue depth between males and females aged 14–18 years old. Comparisons were made with White Americans and African Nova Scotians. These data can assist in 3-D facial reconstructions and aid in establishing an individual’s identity. Previously, no data existed for facial tissue thickness in Canadian Aboriginal populations.
KEYWORDS: forensic science, forensic anthropology, facial reconstruction, Canadian Aboriginals, children, facial tissue depth, ultrasound
Three-dimensional facial reconstruction can aid in establishing the identity of unknown or missing individuals. Multiple techniques are used in creating three-dimensional facial reconstructions. In Canada, forensic artists use the Manchester method, which applies clay muscles on to the skull cast while carefully measuring the thickness of tissues overlying the bone. Flexible rubber markers, which correspond to tissue thickness, are glued to the skull at specific landmarks. The artist uses the markers as guidelines for creating the reconstruction (1). Current literature cites facial tissue depth measurements for multiple populations (2–18). However, no comprehensive study exists that uses ultrasonic techniques and incorporates Canadian Aboriginal children to measure facial tissue depth thickness. By utilizing tissue depth data that more accurately represent the population of the decedent, we are increasing the probability for 1 Saint Mary’s University, Department of Anthropology, Halifax, NS B3H 3C3, Canada. 2 Department of Geography and Anthropology, Louisiana State University, 227 Howe-Russell Geoscience Complex, Baton Rouge, LA 70803. 3 Royal Canadian Mounted Police, Forensic Facial Identification Services, P.O. Box 3900, Fredericton, NB E3B 4Z8, Canada. *Presented at the 2010 International Society for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect, September 26–29, 2010, in Honolulu, HI; the 2007 Canadian Association of Physical Anthropology Conference, November 14–17, 2007, in Banff, Alberta; the 59th Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, February 20-24, 2007, in San Antonio, TX; the 2006 Mi’kmaq Maliseet Annual Atlantic Health Conference, October 18, 2006, in Halifax, Nova Scotia; and the 2005 MAFS Conference (MidWestern Association of Forensic Scientists), October 3–7, 2005, in St. Louis, MO. Received 4 Feb. 2012; and in revised form 7 Aug. 2012; accepted 18 Aug. 2012.
© 2013 American Academy of Forensic Sciences
identifying unknown children and therefore providing them with the dignity of being “named.” In 2008, 5.4% of Canada’s population identified with Aboriginal ancestry (19). Between 1996 and 2006, Canada’s Aboriginal population grew by 45 percent—nearly six times more than the non-Aboriginal population (http://www12.statcan.ca/english/ census06/analysis/aboriginal/pdf/97-558 XIE2006001.pdf [accessed December 22, 2011]). The situation of many of Canada’s Aboriginal people is one of the country’s most pressing public policy questions. The necessity of this project arises from the increased violence experienced by Aboriginal peoples. Canadian Aboriginals are at a higher risk of being victims than the Canadian population in general (http://www.ccsd.ca/cpsd/ccsd/c_ab.htm [accessed December 22, 2011]). Also, an estimated 500 First Nations women are reported missing in Canada (www.amnesty.ca/stolensisters/ amr2000304.pdf [accessed April 22, 2010]). Thirty-one percent of missing women, aged 18 years and below, are of Aboriginal ancestry, which is higher than the national average of 21% (www.nwac.ca/sites/default/files/imce/FACT%20SHEET_MB.pdf [accessed December 21, 2011]). The percentage of unsolved murder cases involving Aboriginal people is also higher than the national average. Presently, no data exist for facial tissue thickness in Canadian Aboriginal populations. Rhine (20) produced a small database for Southwestern American Indian groups; however, only 24 adult cadavers were measured using the needle puncture method. The current project utilizes ultrasound technology to measure facial soft tissue depths in living Canadian indigenous children. These data will help create images that more accurately reflect what the person looked like during life. Although skeletal remains often cannot be assigned to Aboriginal ancestry, these 1
2
JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
data can be used in geographical areas where large numbers of Aboriginal peoples reside or are missing. Some research has shown that age, sex, and ancestry have significant and detectable influences on facial soft tissue depth (3,7,11,13,21). However, other research has shown this difference to be negligible (22–24). The purpose of this research is to examine facial tissue depth data for Canadian Aboriginal children. The goals for this project are to (1) report standard summary statistics, including means, standard deviations, and ranges of tissue thicknesses for subadult males and females of varying ages; (2) determine whether a relationship exists between tissue thickness, age, and sex; and (3) compare the results of this study to contemporary published data for White American and African Nova Scotian children.
TABLE 1––Anatomical landmarks and descriptions.* Point Number 1 Glabella 2 Nasion 3 End of nasals 4 Lateral nostril 5 Mid-philtrum 6 Chin-lip fold 7 Mental eminence 8 Beneath chin 9 Superior eye orbit 10 Inferior eye orbit 11 Supra canine 12 Sub canine
Materials and Methods Facial tissue depth measurements were collected from living children, aged 3–18 years, of Canadian Aboriginal descent. There were 392 volunteers comprised of 177 males and 215 females. All volunteers self-identified as belonging to the Mi’kmaq First Nations community. All procedures were in accordance with the ethical standards from Saint Mary’s University Research Ethics Board, and approval was obtained from the Mi’kmaq community. Following the protocol as outlined in Manhein et al. (3), a biographical data sheet and consent form were signed by the legal guardian of each volunteer. Each child was photographed in the frontal and lateral views. These images provide forensic artists with information for cartilaginous features that are difficult to reconstruct, for example, ears and nose. The height and weight of each participant were measured and recorded. This information was used for calculating the BMI for each volunteer. A portable ultrasound machine in B-mode was used: an Aloka SSD-500 OB/GYN system (black and white monitor) with an Aloka UST-5521-7.5 Mhz transducer and a Sony video graphic thermal printer (UPP-890MD) and Sony thermal paper. Tissue depth data were collected for 19 landmarks on the face (Table 1, Fig. 1). The subjects were seated in an upright position. The ultrasound transducer was coated with gel and lightly applied to each measurement site on the face for 3–5 sec. The distance between the skin and bone was measured using internal calipers in the ultrasound machine (Fig. 2). The image was printed and stored for future reference. Measurements were only collected from the right side of the face. Slight asymmetry does occur in humans but one side of the face was chosen to complete the scanning in a timely manner (25). Canadian Aboriginal populations display skeletal facial structures similar to Asian populations. A high percentage of young people of Canadian Aboriginal descent are overweight or obese. Studies have reported that First Nations populations have a greater incidence of obesity than the general population (26,27). Thirty-seven percent of volunteers in this study were categorized as “Normal” BMI and 63% were categorized as “Overweight” or “Obese.” According to Community Health Nurses, “normal” BMI for Aboriginal peoples falls within the overweight/obese BMI-for-age category according to standards set by the United States Centre for Disease Control (CDC) (N. Paul, Pers Comm, April 8, 2010). Therefore, selecting facial tissue depth measurements only for children of normal BMI-for-age, as defined by the CDC, was not useful for the goals of this study which is to produce facial tissue depth measurements that are representative of the standard weight for Canadian Aboriginal children. As a
13 Supra M2
14 Lower cheek 15 Mid mandible 16 Lateral eye orbit 17 Zygomatic 18 Gonion 19 Root of zygoma
Description Approximately 10 mm above and directly between the subject’s eyebrows Directly between eyes Palpating to determine where bone ends and cartilage begins Approximately 5 mm to the right of the nostril Centered between nose and mouth Centered in fold of chin, below lips Centered on forward-most projecting point of chin Centered on inferior surface of mandible Centered on eye, at level of eyebrow Centered on eye, where inferior bony margin lies Upper lip, lined up superiorly/inferiorly with lateral edge of nostril Lower lip, lined up superiorly/inferiorly with lateral edge of nostril Cheek region, lateral: lined up with bottom of nose; vertical: center of transducer lined up beneath lateral border of eye Cheek region, lateral: lined up with mouth; vertical; same as 13 Inferior border of mandible, vertically lined up same as 13 Lined up laterally with corner of the eye, on the bone Lined up with the lateral border of the eye, on the zygomatic process Found by palpating Anterior to and 5 mm superior to tragus
*After Manhein et al. (3).
result, facial tissue depths that fell within the normal and overweight/obese BMI-for-age, as defined by the CDC, were used to construct the facial tissue depth tables. This ensured that the tissue depth measurements accurately reflected the standard weight of Canadian Aboriginal children. Microsoft Excel spreadsheets and MINITAB Release 14.20 statistical software package were used for statistical analyses. Summary statistics were used for assessing the relationships between tissue thickness, age, and sex. Males and females were analyzed separately, and data were categorized into three age groups (3–8 years, 9–13 years, and 14–18 years of age). These age categories correspond to Manhein et al.’s (3) protocol for subadult White American children and Huculak’s (28) protocol for African Nova Scotian children and allowed for comparisons with previous data. The mean, standard deviation, and range of the tissue depths for each anatomical landmark in each age category were calculated. Pearson’s correlations were used to test the relationship between age and tissue thickness for males and females independently. Two-sample (independent sample) t-tests were used to verify whether there were significant differences between sex and tissue thickness. In addition, two-sample t-tests were used to investigate whether the differences in facial tissue depths were statistically significant between the sexes of differing subadult age groups. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was calculated to test significant differences within the sexes of differing subadult age groups for males and females independently. A paired difference t-test was used to calculate the intra-observer error of each anatomical landmark for 25 volunteers. For all statistical analyses, the level of significance was p < 0.05. An examination of facial tissue depth variation in people of different ancestries was achieved through comparing data from Aboriginal
PECKMANN ET AL.
.
IN VIVO FACIAL TISSUE DEPTH FOR CANADIAN ABORIGINAL CHILDREN
3
FIG. 2––Printout of ultrasound data.
FIG. 1––Frontal and lateral views of female volunteer showing anatomical landmarks.
Canadian children with contemporary published data for White American and African Nova Scotian children. As the variables were normally distributed, and not skewed, means and standard deviations were used as the most appropriate measures of central tendency. The two-sample t-tests were selected as the appropriate statistical test because the sample was randomly and independently selected; the variances were similar for the measurements, and the data exhibited a normal distribution based on Ryan–Joiner normality tests (normal probability plots) generated by MINITAB. Results Tables 2 and 3 present the means, standard deviations, and ranges for the different age categories of Canadian Aboriginal males and females. Thirty-seven percent of volunteers in this study were categorized as “Normal” BMI and 63% were categorized as “Overweight” or “Obese.” For Canadian Aboriginals, regardless of age or sex, facial tissue depth generally was thickest
and had the greatest variation in the cheek (points 4, 10, 13, and 14), mouth (point 11), and jaw (points 15 and 18) regions. Tables 4 and 5 show Pearson’s correlations between age and tissue thickness for males and females. For males, a significant relationship exists between age and tissue thickness at 13 of 19 points. For females, a significant relationship exists between age and tissue thickness at 10 of 19 points. Both males and females exhibit significant relationships between age and tissue thickness in the forehead, nose, mouth, chin, cheek, and jaw areas. Six of these points are the same for both sexes (points 1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 19) with two of the points being found in the forehead region. Tables 6 and 7 demonstrate results of the ANOVA used to test for significant differences of facial tissue thickness within males and females when all three age categories were compared with one another. For males, the forehead (points 1 and 9) and chin (point 7) undergo changes in early subadult years, whereas the nose (point 2) and mouth (point 5) undergo changes in late subadult years. For females, the forehead (points 1 and 9) and nose (point 2) undergo changes in early subadult years, whereas the chin (point 7) undergoes changes in late subadult years. Tables 8–10 show the results of the t-test comparing males and females at each measurement site for each age category. Significant differences in facial tissue depth are predominantly observed in the 9–13-year-old age category, which include the forehead (points 1 and 9), nose (points 2 and 3), cheek (points 4 and 16), and mouth (points 5 and 6) regions. Tables 11–14 present comparisons between tissue depth thickness for children of Canadian Aboriginal, White American, and African Nova Scotian ancestry. Overall, Canadian Aboriginal males and females, when compared with White American males and females, respectively, show greater tissue thickness at all points except for the lateral jaw (points 15, 18, and 19) and cheek (point 17) regions. In general, when compared with African Nova Scotian males, Canadian Aboriginal males tend to show greater tissue thickness in the forehead, nose, chin, and cheek area. When compared with African Nova Scotian females, Canadian Aboriginal females generally tend to show greater tissue depth in the forehead, nose, mouth, chin, and cheek except for the lateral jaw and cheek areas. Intra-observer error, using a paired t-test, was assessed on 25 participants who were measured twice. The test demonstrated significant differences at only two points (1 and 8). These two measurement sites (the forehead and beneath the chin) exhibit small facial tissue depths; therefore, the differences observed at these locations may be attributed to instrument precision rather than observer error.
4
JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES TABLE 2––Descriptive statistics of facial tissue depths (mm) of subadult Canadian Aboriginal males. 3–8 Years Old (N = 25)
9–13 Years Old (N = 94)
14–18 Years Old (N = 58)
Anatomical Landmarks
Mean
SD
Range
Mean
SD
Range
Mean
SD
Range
1 Glabella 2 Nasion 3 End of nasals 4 Lateral nostril 5 Mid-philtrum 6 Chin-lip fold 7 Mental eminence 8 Beneath chin 9 Superior eye orbit 10 Inferior eye orbit 11 Supracanine 12 Subcanine 13 Supra M2 14 Lower cheek 15 Mid mandible 16 Lateral eye orbit 17 Zygomatic 18 Gonion 19 Root of zygoma
5.4 6.2 5.3* 21.5 10.6 9.5 11.3 7.8 6.3 7.8 15.5 15.7 27.8 26.1 10.0 4.6 6.6 7.0* 4.3*
1.16 1.41 1.05 4.89 2.10 1.45 3.24 2.96 1.43 2.52 5.61 6.26 9.54 9.13 5.33 1.15 1.66 2.83 1.00
3–8 5–11 3–8 11–35 5–14 7–12 7–19 5–16 4–10 3–13 4–31 10–34 8–47 4–39 5–29 3–7 4–10 4–16 3–7
6.5 7.1 5.4 22.4 11.6 10.2† 14.0 8.8 7.8 8.8 14.3 14.6 30.0 26.2† 10.1 4.9 6.9 7.3 4.4
1.34 1.54 1.20 3.27 1.70 2.15 3.09 2.41 1.78 2.57 4.37 4.41 5.56 5.23 3.61 1.09 1.47 2.30 1.10
4–11 4–11 2–9 16–32 8–15 5–19 8–23 4–16 3–12 4–19 9–32 8–33 12–46 16–39 4–27 3–9 4–11 3–16 2–9
6.6 7.7 6.0 20.7 12.4 10.5‡ 13.5§ 8.6§ 7.9 7.1 12.9 13.7 28.1 24.3 8.4 4.6 6.8 6.3 3.8‡
1.21 1.12 1.35 3.62 1.56 1.68 2.76 2.78 1.66 2.15 2.45 2.54 5.16 5.11 3.15 1.15 2.25 2.98 0.90
4–10 6–10 4–10 14–29 10–18 6–16 9–21 4–17 5–11 3–15 8–19 7–21 13–48 15–41 3–17 3–8 3–15 3–18 2–7
SD, standard deviation. *n = 24. † n = 93. ‡ n = 57. § n = 56.
TABLE 3––Descriptive statistics of facial tissue depths (mm) of subadult Canadian Aboriginal females. 3–8 Years Old (N = 42)
9–13 Years Old (N = 107)
14–18 Years Old (N = 66)
Anatomical Landmarks
Mean
SD
Range
Mean
SD
Range
Mean
SD
Range
1 Glabella 2 Nasion 3 End of nasals 4 Lateral nostril 5 Mid-philtrum 6 Chin-lip fold 7 Mental eminence 8 Beneath chin 9 Superior eye orbit 10 Inferior eye orbit 11 Supracanine 12 Subcanine 13 Supra M2 14 Lower cheek 15 Mid mandible 16 Lateral eye orbit 17 Zygomatic 18 Gonion 19 Root of zygoma
5.3 5.6 5.0 19.3 10.0 9.0 12.2 7.3 6.4 7.7* 15.4* 13.3* 27.8† 24.1 9.0* 4.1* 6.3* 6.5 4.2
1.05 1.21 1.06 4.32 1.79 1.91 3.01 2.55 1.47 2.17 4.00 3.42 4.94 6.07 3.73 1.11 2.20 2.00 0.93
4–8 3–8 3–8 5–29 7–15 6–17 6–21 4–16 4–10 3–13 9–24 5–21 18–41 7–37 4–25 3–7 3–17 3–13 3–7
6.1 6.4 4.9 20.8 10.7 9.6 13.3 8.2 7.3 8.6 13.3 13.8 29.5‡ 24.6 9.6 4.6 6.9 6.7 4.3
1.36 1.38 1.13 3.71 1.54 1.67 3.13 2.51 1.79 2.20 3.79 3.14 6.48 6.32 3.29 1.11 1.57 2.13 0.97
3–11 4–12 2–7 14–32 7–15 6–14 7–23 5–16 4–13 4–14 8–25 8–25 12–54 8–45 4–18 2–9 4–11 3–13 3–7
6.3 6.9 5.2 21.1§ 10.8§ 10.2 14.5 8.3 7.7 8.5 14.2¶ 14.0 29.9 25.7 9.1 4.6 7.0 6.5 4.5
1.34 1.39 1.19 3.67 1.44 1.52 3.06 2.60 2.02 2.66 4.93 3.13 6.09 5.16 3.13 1.28 1.80 1.59 1.07
4–10 5–11 3–9 5–29 8–15 7–15 9–30 3–21 5–15 4–18 6–35 9–29 11–44 10–39 5–19 3–10 4–13 4–11 3–8
SD, standard deviation. *n = 41. † n = 40. ‡ n = 105. § n = 65. ¶ n = 64.
Discussion The goals of this research were to examine the relationship between age and sex on facial tissue thickness in Canadian Aboriginal populations and to compare the data with those from
White American and African Nova Scotian children. Some researchers have utilized body mass index (BMI)—a classification system derived primarily from Caucasian groups from the United States and Europe—to further subcategorize data (6,25,29–31). All volunteers, regardless of body build, were
PECKMANN ET AL.
.
IN VIVO FACIAL TISSUE DEPTH FOR CANADIAN ABORIGINAL CHILDREN
TABLE 4––Pearson’s correlation (r) between tissue thickness and age for subadult Canadian Aboriginal males. Anatomical Landmarks
r-value
1 Glabella 2 Nasion 3 End of nasals 4 Lateral nostril 5 Mid-philtrum 6 Chin-lip fold 7 Mental eminence 8 Beneath chin 9 Superior eye orbit 10 Inferior eye orbit 11 Supracanine 12 Subcanine 13 Supra M2 14 Lower cheek 15 Mid mandible 16 Lateral eye orbit 17 Zygomatic 18 Gonion 19 Root of zygoma †
TABLE 5––Pearson’s correlation (r) between tissue thickness and age for subadult Canadian Aboriginal females.
p-value
†
0.002 0.000 0.003 0.150 0.000 0.029 0.008 0.200 0.001 0.020 0.002 0.038 0.965 0.079 0.002 0.653 0.566 0.011 0.005
0.234 0.381† 0.219† 0.109 0.344† 0.165† 0.200† 0.097 0.256† 0.175† 0.255† 0.156† 0.003 0.133 0.235† 0.034 0.043 0.191† 0.210†
5
Anatomical Landmarks
r-value
1 Glabella 2 Nasion 3 End of nasals 4 Lateral nostril 5 Mid-philtrum 6 Chin-lip fold 7 Mental eminence 8 Beneath chin 9 Superior eye orbit 10 Inferior eye orbit 11 Supracanine 12 Subcanine 13 Supra M2 14 Lower cheek 15 Mid mandible 16 Lateral eye orbit 17 Zygomatic 18 Gonion 19 Root of zygoma †
p < 0.05.
p-value
†
0.001 0.000 0.487 0.017 0.085 0.001 0.000 0.009 0.000 0.268 0.353 0.372 0.056 0.044 0.853 0.056 0.032 0.828 0.018
0.231 0.315† 0.048 0.163† 0.118 0.234† 0.292† 0.178† 0.274† 0.076 0.064 0.061 0.132 0.138† 0.013 0.131 0.147† 0.015 0.161†
p < 0.05.
TABLE 6––Summary of a One-way ANOVA showing the significant differences of tissue thickness within Canadian Aboriginal males for differing subadult age groups. Anatomical Landmarks Age Groups 3–8 years (A) 9–13 years (B) 14–18 years (C)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
B,C A A
B,C A,C A,B
C B
C B
B,C A,C A,B
B,C A A
B,C A A
C B
C A
C B
C B
Different letters indicate a significant difference at the landmark among the age groups (p < 0.05).
TABLE 7––Summary of a one-way ANOVA showing the significant differences of tissue thickness within Canadian Aboriginal females for differing subadult age groups. Anatomical Landmarks Age Groups 3–8 years (A) 9–13 years (B) 14–18 years (C)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
B,C A A
B,C A A
C A
C A
C C A,B
B,C A A
B A
Different letters indicate a significant difference at the landmark among the age groups (p < 0.05).
included in this study, and no further analysis based on BMI was conducted, which is consistent with recommendations proposed by Stephan and Simpson (32). In addition, a study by Deurenderg et al. (33) cites that BMI indices do not translate well from one population group to another. Age While some research has shown a significant relationship between age and facial tissue thickness (1–3,15,18,22,34,35), others have shown very weak linear correlations (3, 13, 14). Not all children grow at a similar rate; consequently, it is difficult to establish methods that can be universally applied to predict the growth of children’s faces (36–38). However, the most accurate growth
prediction is likely to occur when large reference groups are utilized to derive standard values and when these reference groups are similar to the individual or population under investigation (38). The greatest differences in facial tissue depth for Canadian Aboriginal children are observed in the 9–13-year-old age category. This result is consistent with research that cites the onset of puberty for females as early as 10 years of age and for males as early as 12 years of age (39). Overall, for Canadian Aboriginal males, as age increases, tissue facial thickness decreases in the mouth, cheek, and jaw area (Table 4). The increased tissue depth in the forehead (points 1 and 9), nose (point 2), mouth (point 5), and chin (point 7) regions likely is attributable to age as signified by the ANOVA (Table 6). However, the pattern is quite different for Canadian Aboriginal
6
JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
TABLE 8––Comparisons of the tissue thickness between Canadian Aboriginal males (n = 25) and females (n = 42) for ages 3–8 years old using t-tests.
TABLE 10––Comparisons of the tissue thickness between Canadian Aboriginal males (n = 58) and females (n = 66) for ages 14–18 years old using ttests.
Anatomical Landmarks
t-value
p-value
Anatomical Landmarks
t-value
p-value
1 Glabella 2 Nasion 3 End of nasals 4 Lateral nostril 5 Mid-philtrum 6 Chin-lip fold 7 Mental eminence 8 Beneath chin 9 Superior eye orbit 10 Inferior eye orbit 11 Supracanine 12 Subcanine 13 Supra M2 14 Lower cheek 15 Mid mandible 16 Lateral eye orbit 17 Zygomatic 18 Gonion 19 Root of zygoma
0.46 1.65 1.24 1.85 1.18 1.22 1.09 0.72 0.41 0.19 0.12 1.74 0.00 0.97 0.78 1.71 0.63 0.84 0.50
0.646 0.107 0.222 0.070 0.245 0.227 0.280 0.473 0.685 0.848 0.905 0.092 1.00 0.336 0.438 0.093 0.534 0.409 0.619
1 Glabella 2 Nasion 3 End of nasals 4 Lateral nostril 5 Mid-philtrum 6 Chin-lip fold 7 Mental eminence 8 Beneath chin 9 Superior eye orbit 10 Inferior eye orbit 11 Supracanine 12 Subcanine 13 Supra M2 14 Lower cheek 15 Mid mandible 16 Lateral eye orbit 17 Zygomatic 18 Gonion 19 Root of zygoma
1.37 3.67† 3.34† 0.64 6.18† 1.23 1.81 0.55 0.70 3.30† 1.76 0.51 1.76 1.51 1.26 0.06 0.46 0.48 3.87†
0.172 0.000 0.001 0.525 0.000 0.222 0.073 0.585 0.488 0.001 0.082 0.613 0.081 0.132 0.210 0.954 0.646 0.630 0.000
†
TABLE 9––Comparisons of the tissue thickness between Canadian Aboriginal males (n = 94) and females (n = 107) for ages 9–13 years old using t-tests. Anatomical Landmarks
t-value
p-value
1 Glabella 2 Nasion 3 End of nasals 4 Lateral nostril 5 Mid-philtrum 6 Chin-lip fold 7 Mental eminence 8 Beneath chin 9 Superior eye orbit 10 Inferior eye orbit 11 Supracanine 12 Subcanine 13 Supra M2 14 Lower cheek 15 Mid mandible 16 Lateral eye orbit 17 Zygomatic 18 Gonion 19 Root of zygoma
2.20† 3.27† 2.90† 3.31† 3.94† 2.08† 1.73 1.72 2.09† 0.66 1.60 1.53 0.55 1.91 1.01 2.16† 0.08 1.84 0.45
0.029 0.001 0.004 0.001 0.000 0.039 0.085 0.087 0.038 0.512 0.111 0.129 0.585 0.057 0.315 0.032 0.933 0.067 0.652
†
p < 0.05.
females: As age increases, tissue thickness also increases at every point except one, in the mouth region, supracanine (Table 3). This result is consistent with Stephan and Simpson (40) who cite that, overall, facial tissue depths increase from childhood to adulthood. The increased tissue depth in the forehead (points 1 and 9), nose (point 2), and chin (point 7) regions likely is attributable to age as signified by the ANOVA (Table 7). Some of the cheek and jaw points show large variation in tissue thickness. These are locations that exhibit the most change during puberty for females and males, respectively (36). Although the relationship between age and tissue facial thickness is significant, the correlations are weak. This finding suggests that other factors are influencing variation such as genetics, the effects of air temperature, hydration status, and stage of menstrual cycle (32).
p < 0.05.
Sex Research has shown that, with the exception of the cheeks, overall facial tissue is thicker in males for most points particularly in the brow, mouth, and jaw regions (3,21,32,36). This pattern is also demonstrated in Canadian Aboriginal populations. In both males and females, the points with the greatest standard deviation are found in the more fleshy parts of the face, that is, the chin, cheek, and jaw areas. This result is consistent with research that shows nutritional status, that is, physique, influences facial tissue depth, mainly in areas of the face with higher fat content or well-developed musculature (4,6,9,22,30,31,36). Stephan and Simpson (32) cite that while overall facial tissue depth is greater in males (except for the cheeks), differences are “extremely small” (they report a range of variation of 0.0–1.9 mm) and therefore support “collapsing the data across the sexes and using weighted means to yield one set of data for all adults” (36, p. 1264). In the current research, all ranges of variation are greater than 1.9 mm. However, the 3–8-year-old age category shows no significant differences in facial tissue depth between males and females; these data could be collapsed into one age category, that is, 3-8 years old, which combines both sexes. The significant differences observed between males and females in the 913-year-old age category suggest that sex begins to influence the thickness of facial soft tissues around the onset of puberty. Ancestry When compared with White American males (Table 11), overall, Canadian Aboriginal males show increased facial tissue thickness at all points except the jaw and lateral cheek. The same pattern is observed when comparing Canadian Aboriginal females with White American females (Table 12). Canadian Aboriginal males, when compared with African Nova Scotian males (Table 13), show thinner tissue depths in the mid-face and lateral face areas from childhood to adult years. When compared with African Nova Scotian females (Table 14), Canadian Aboriginal females, overall, demonstrate an increase in facial
PECKMANN ET AL.
.
IN VIVO FACIAL TISSUE DEPTH FOR CANADIAN ABORIGINAL CHILDREN
7
TABLE 11––Comparison of facial tissue depth means (mm) of subadult Canadian Aboriginal males with subadult White American males.* 3–8 Years Old
Anatomical Landmarks 1 Glabella 2 Nasion 3 End of nasals 4 Lateral nostril 5 Mid-philtrum 6 Chin-lip fold 7 Mental eminence 8 Beneath chin 9 Superior eye orbit 10 Inferior eye orbit 11 Supracanine 12 Subcanine 13 Supra M2 14 Lower cheek 15 Mid mandible 16 Lateral eye orbit 17 Zygomatic 18 Gonion 19 Root of zygoma
Canadian Aboriginal (N = 25)
White American (N = 36)
5.4 6.2 5.3† 21.5 10.6 9.5 11.3 7.8 6.3 7.8 15.5 15.7 27.8 26.1 10.0 4.6 6.6 7.0† 4.3†
4.0 5.7 1.8 7.2 9.0 8.1 8.3 4.6 4.6 5.5 9.4 8.4 23.3 20.7 10.4 4.1 8.4 13.7 4.8
9–13 Years Old
Difference
Canadian Aboriginal (N = 94)
White American (N = 45)
1.4 0.5 3.5 14.3 1.6 1.4 3.0 3.2 1.7 2.3 6.1 7.3 4.5 5.4 0.4 0.5 1.8 6.7 0.5
6.5 7.1 5.4 22.4 11.6 10.2‡ 14.0 8.8 7.8 8.8 14.3 14.6 30.0 26.2‡ 10.1 4.9 6.9 7.3 4.4
4.6k 5.7k 1.6 7.4 9.7 9.6 8.7 5.5 5.2 5.9 10.0 9.6 24.7 21.6 12.1 4.4 9.1 15.4 5.4
14–18 Years Old
Difference
Canadian Aboriginal (N = 58)
White American (N = 27)
Difference
1.9 1.4 3.8 15.0 1.9 0.6 5.3 3.3 2.6 2.9 4.3 5.0 5.3 4.6 2.0 0.5 2.2 8.1 1.0
6.6 7.7 6.0 20.7 12.4 10.5§ 13.5¶ 8.6¶ 7.9 7.1 12.9 13.7 28.1 24.3 8.4 4.6 6.8 6.3 3.8§
5.0 6.3 2.0 7.8 11.2 10.4 9.3 6.0 5.7 5.3 11.7 10.6 27.4 23.2 12.3 4.3 8.0 18.1 6.0
1.6 1.4 4.0 12.9 1.2 0.1 4.2 2.6 2.2 1.8 1.2 3.1 0.7 1.1 3.9 0.3 1.2 11.8 2.2
*Based on Manhein et al. (3). † n = 24. ‡ n = 93. § n = 57. ¶ n = 56. k n = 44.
TABLE 12––Comparison of facial tissue depth means (mm) of sub-adult Canadian Aboriginal females to sub-adult White American females.* 3–8 Years Old
Anatomical Landmarks 1 Glabella 2 Nasion 3 End of nasals 4 Lateral nostril 5 Mid-philtrum 6 Chin-lip fold 7 Mental eminence 8 Beneath chin 9 Superior eye orbit 10 Inferior eye orbit 11 Supracanine 12 Subcanine 13 Supra M2 14 Lower cheek 15 Mid mandible 16 Lateral eye orbit 17 Zygomatic 18 Gonion 19 Root of zygoma
Canadian Aboriginal (N = 42)
White American (N = 43)
5.3 5.6 5.0 19.3 10.0 9.0 12.2 7.3 6.4 7.7† 15.4† 13.3† 27.8‡ 24.1 9.0† 4.1† 6.3† 6.5 4.2
3.9 5.0 1.7 7.0 8.3 7.6 7.4 4.2 4.4 5.6 8.4 7.9 22.7 18.9 10.5 4.0 8.4 13.9 4.6
9–13 Years Old
Difference
Canadian Aboriginal (N = 107)
White American (N = 51)
1.4 0.6 3.3 12.3 1.7 1.4 4.8 3.1 2.0 2.1 7.0 5.4 5.1 5.2 1.5 0.1 2.1 7.4 0.4
6.1 6.4 4.9 20.8 10.7 9.6 13.3 8.2 7.3 8.6 13.3 13.8 29.5§ 24.6 9.6 4.6 6.9 6.7 4.3
4.4 5.5 1.5 7.7 9.4 9.0 8.8 5.5 5.1 5.6 9.8 9.2 24.3 20.8 11.7 4.6 9.5 14.4 5.2
14–18 Years Old
Difference
Canadian Aboriginal (N = 66)
White American (N = 35)
Difference
1.7 0.9 3.4 13.1 1.3 0.6 4.5 2.7 2.2 3.0 3.5 4.6 5.2 3.8 2.1 0.0 2.6 7.7 0.9
6.3 6.9 5.2 21.1¶ 10.8¶ 10.2 14.5 8.3 7.7 8.5 14.2k 14.0 29.9 25.7 9.1 4.6 7.0 6.5 4.5
4.6 5.4 1.8 7.7 9.4 9.7 8.7 5.5 5.7 6.0 10.3 9.8 26.8 23.2 13.4 4.5 9.5 17.0 6.8
1.7 1.5 3.4 13.4 1.4 0.5 5.8 2.8 2.0 2.5 3.9 4.2 3.1 2.5 4.3 0.1 2.5 10.5 2.3
*Based on Manhein et al. (3). † n = 41. ‡ n = 40. § n = 105. ¶ n = 65. k n = 64.
tissue depth in the forehead, nose, mouth chin, and cheek areas (excluding the lateral jaw and cheek regions). These results suggest that the pattern of facial tissue thickness may be influenced by biological affinity. The amount of influence from genetic, cultural, or environmental factors is unknown.
Stephan and Simpson’s (32) review of published tissue thickness data cites that the lack of standardized methods for collecting and reporting tissue depth data introduces error from a number of sources (e.g., measurement method, landmark definitions, availability of raw data, etc.) and limits statistically
8
JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES TABLE 13––Comparison of facial tissue depth means (mm) of subadult Canadian Aboriginal males with subadult African Nova Scotian males.* 3–8 Years Old
Anatomical Landmarks 1 Glabella 2 Nasion 3 End of nasals 4 Lateral nostril 5 Mid-philtrum 6 Chin-lip fold 7 Mental eminence 8 Beneath chin 9 Superior eye orbit 10 Inferior eye orbit 11 Supracanine 12 Subcanine 13 Supra M2 14 Lower cheek 15 Mid mandible 16 Lateral eye orbit 17 Zygomatic 18 Gonion 19 Root of zygoma
Canadian Aboriginal (N = 25)
African Nova Scotian (N = 3)
5.4 6.2 5.3† 21.5 10.6 9.5 11.3 7.8 6.3 7.8 15.5 15.7 27.8 26.1 10.0 4.6 6.6 7.0† 4.3†
5.0 5.0 4.7 18.3 10.0 9.7 8.0 5.7 6.0 11.3 11.7 9.7 24.0 24.7 7.0 3.7 5.7 4.7 3.0
9–13 Years Old
Difference
Canadian Aboriginal (N = 94)
African Nova Scotian (N = 14)
0.4 1.2 0.6 3.2 0.6 0.2 3.3 2.1 0.3 3.5 3.8 6.0 3.8 1.4 3.0 0.9 0.9 2.3 1.3
6.5 7.1 5.4 22.4 11.6 10.2‡ 14.0 8.8 7.8 8.8 14.3 14.6 30.0 26.2‡ 10.1 4.9 6.9 7.3 4.4
5.6 6.2 4.7 19.1 11.4 11.2 12.8 8.1 6.9 8.9 13.4 12.8 22.6 21.7 9.7 4.5 7.1 7.6 4.4
14–18 Years Old
Difference
Canadian Aboriginal (N = 58)
African Nova Scotian (N = 4)
Difference
0.9 0.9 0.7 3.3 0.2 1.0 1.2 0.7 0.9 0.1 0.9 1.8 7.4 4.5 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.0
6.6 7.7 6.0 20.7 12.4 10.5§ 13.5¶ 8.6¶ 7.9 7.1 12.9 13.7 28.1 24.3 8.4 4.6 6.8 6.3 3.8§
5.8 7.5 4.0 19.3 12.3 13.0 14.0 8.7 8.0 7.5 12.3 12.5 24.5 23.5 10.8 4.8 5.8 13.0 3.5
0.8 0.2 2.0 1.4 0.1 2.5 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.6 1.2 3.6 0.8 2.4 0.2 1.0 6.7 0.3
*Based on Huculak (28). † n = 24. ‡ n = 93. § n = 57. ¶ n = 56.
TABLE 14––Comparison of facial tissue depth means (mm) of subadult Canadian Aboriginal females with subadult African Nova Scotian females.* 3–8 Years Old
Anatomical Landmarks 1 Glabella 2 Nasion 3 End of nasals 4 Lateral nostril 5 Mid-philtrum 6 Chin-lip fold 7 Mental eminence 8 Beneath chin 9 Superior eye orbit 10 Inferior eye orbit 11 Supracanine 12 Subcanine 13 Supra M2 14 Lower cheek 15 Mid mandible 16 Lateral eye orbit 17 Zygomatic 18 Gonion 19 Root of zygoma
Canadian Aboriginal (N = 42)
African Nova Scotian (N = 5)
5.3 5.6 5.0 19.3 10.0 9.0 12.2 7.3 6.4 7.7† 15.4† 13.3† 27.8‡ 24.1 9.0† 4.1† 6.3† 6.5 4.2
5.0 6.0 4.2 17.8 10.6 8.6 9.8 6.4 6.2 7.2 11.8 11.2 22.8 21.0 9.6 4.4 6.8 6.2 3.8
9–13 Years Old
Difference
Canadian Aboriginal (N = 107)
African Nova Scotian (N = 15)
0.3 0.4 0.8 1.5 0.6 0.4 2.4 0.9 0.2 0.5 3.6 2.1 5.0 3.1 0.6 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.4
6.1 6.4 4.9 20.8 10.7 9.6 13.3 8.2 7.3 8.6 13.3 13.8 29.5§ 24.6 9.6 4.6 6.9 6.7 4.3
5.8 6.3 5.0 20.9 10.3 11.0 13.3 8.9 8.0 7.6 14.3 12.5 23.3 22.3 10.9 4.9 8.7 9.6 4.7
14–18 Years Old
Difference
Canadian Aboriginal (N = 66)
African Nova Scotian (N = 13)
Difference
0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.4 1.4 0.0 0.7 0.7 1.0 1.0 1.3 6.2 2.3 1.3 0.3 1.8 2.9 0.4
6.3 6.9 5.2 21.1¶ 10.8¶ 10.2 14.5 8.3 7.7 8.5 14.2k 14.0 29.9 25.7 9.1 4.6 7.0 6.5 4.5
5.0 5.6 3.5 19.6 10.5 11.8 11.8 7.8 6.1 8.4 12.1 12.7 25.5 21.4 9.2 4.2 7.8 6.6 4.2
1.3 1.3 1.7 1.5 0.3 1.6 2.7 0.5 1.6 0.1 2.1 1.3 4.4 4.3 0.1 0.4 0.8 0.1 0.3
*Based on Huculak (28). † n = 41. ‡ n = 40. § n = 105. ¶ n = 65. k n = 64.
meaningful interpretation of data between biological populations (32, pp. 1259–60). They also note that the effect of population affinity on facial tissue thickness is not strong as studies display broad but similar ranges and central tendencies irrespective of population group (32, p. 1264). The authors
also cite the effects of “race” on tissue depth thickness as minimal (32, p. 1264). Future studies may want to include genetic information for geographical populations so that the effect of “race”, or ancestry, can be more accurately determined. Additionally, raw data should be available to all
PECKMANN ET AL.
.
IN VIVO FACIAL TISSUE DEPTH FOR CANADIAN ABORIGINAL CHILDREN
researchers so that observed differences between studies can be analyzed statistically. Conclusions The data demonstrate significant differences in tissue thickness between sexes, ages, and geographical populations. As the 3–8-year-old age category shows no significant differences in facial tissue depth between males and females, these data could be collapsed into one age category, that is, 3–8 years old. However, differences were demonstrated in other age categories; therefore, collapsing those data is not recommended. These data will add to the already existing databases of children for use in 3-dimensional facial reconstruction of unknown or missing individuals. They will provide forensic artists with a tool for generating images that will help identify missing Aboriginal peoples. Acknowledgments The authors wish to acknowledge the generous donations from the following organizations: Nova Scotia Medical Examiner Service, Saint Mary’s University, Kids Help Phone (Halifax), Techsploration, Halifax Mooseheads Hockey Team, Regional Maple Leaf Communications Inc. The authors thank Mrs. Philomena Moore, (retired) Principle, Eskasoni Elementary and Middle School, who helped recruit volunteers and without whose assistance this project would not have been possible. The authors also thank all the individuals who volunteered for this project and to the Mi’kmaq Community for working with us on this research. Additional gratitude is given to Dr Susan Meek, Department of Biology, Saint Mary’s University, for her assistance with the statistical analyses. Funded in part by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, Canada, Aboriginal Development Grant (No. 856-2005-0005); the Sick Kids Foundation and the Institute of Human Development, Child and Youth Health-CIHR Grant (No. XG09-001); the F.A.C.E.S. Laboratory, Louisiana State University; and Saint Mary’s University Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research. References 1. Vanezis M, Vanezis P. Cranio-facial reconstruction in forensic identification: historical development and a review of current practice. Med Sci Law 2000;40:197–205. 2. Lebedinskaya GV, Balueva TS, Veselovskaya EV. Principles of facial _ßcan MY, Helmer RP, editors. Forensic analysis of reconstruction. In: Is the skull: craniofacial analysis, reconstruction, and identification. New York, NY: Wiley-Liss, 1993;183–98. 3. Manhein MH, Listi GA, Barsley RE, Musselman R, Barrow NE, Ubelaker DH. In vivo facial tissue depth measurements for children and adults. J Forensic Sci 2000;45(1):48–60. 4. Rhine JS, Moore CE II, Weston JT, editors. Facial reproduction: tables of facial tissue thickness of American caucasoids in forensic anthropology. Maxwell Museum Technical Series, No. 1. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico, 1982. 5. Chan WNJ. In vivo facial tissue depth study of Chinese-Americans in New York City [thesis]. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University, 2007. 6. Suzuki K. On the thickness of the soft parts of the Japanese face. J Anthropol Soc Nippon 1948;60(1):7–11. 7. El-Mehallawi IH, Soliman EM. Ultrasonic assessment of facial soft tissue thicknesses in adult Egyptians. Forensic Sci Int 2001;117(1–2):99–107. 8. Sahni D, Jit I, Gupta M, Singh P, Sanjeev SS, Kaur H. Preliminary study of facial soft tissue thickness by magnetic resonance imaging in Northwest Indians. Forensic Sci Commun 2002;4(1). Available at: http://www. fbi.gov/about-us/lab/forensic-science-communications/fsc/jan2002/sahni. htm. 9. Rhine JS, Campbell HR. Thickness of facial tissues in American Blacks. J Forensic Sci 1980;25(4):847–58.
9
_ßcan MY. Facial soft-tissue thicknesses in 10. Aulsebrook WA, Becker PJ, Is the adult male Zulu. Forensic Sci Int 1996;79(2):83–102. 11. Phillip VM, Smuts NA. Facial reconstruction: utilization of computerized tomography to measure facial tissue thickness in a mixed racial population. Forensic Sci Int 1996;83(1):51–9. 12. Hodson G, Lieberman LS, Wright P. In vivo measurements of facial tissue thicknesses in American Caucasoid children. J Forensic Sci 1985;30 (4):1100–12. 13. Garlie TN, Saunders SR. Midline facial tissue thicknesses of subadults from a longitudinal radiographic study. J Forensic Sci 1999;44(1):61– 7. 14. Smith SL, Buschang PH. Midsagittal facial thicknesses of children and adolescents from the Montreal growth study. J Forensic Sci 2001;46 (6):1294–302. 15. Wilkinson CM. In vivo facial tissue depth measurements for White British children. J Forensic Sci 2002;47(3):459–65. 16. Utsuno H, Kageyama T, Deguchi T, Yoshino M, Miyazawa H, Inoue K. Facial soft tissue thickness in Japanese female children. Forensic Sci Int 2005;152(2–3):101–7. 17. Utsuno H, Kageyama T, Deguchi T, Umemura Y, Yoshino M, Nakamura H, et al. Facial soft tissue thickness in skeletal Type I Japanese children. Forensic Sci Int 2007;172(2–3):137–43. 18. Williamson MA, Nawrocki SP, Rathbun TA. Variation in midfacial tissue thickness of African-American children. J Forensic Sci 2002;47 (1):25–31. 19. Ball J. Promoting equity and dignity for Aboriginal children in Canada. IRPP Choices 2008;14(7):1–40. 20. Rhine JS. Facial tissue thickness: Tables of facial tissue thickness of American Indians. Maxwell Museum of Anthropology. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico, 1983. 21. Simpson E, Henneberg M. Variation in soft-tissue thicknesses on the human face and their relation to craniometric dimensions. Am J Phys Anthropol 2002;118(2):121–33. 22. His W. Anatomische forschungen uber Johann Sebastian Bach gebeine und antlitz nebst Bemerkunfen uber dessen bilder. Abh MathPhysikal KI Kgl Sachs Ges Wiss 1895;22:379–420. 23. Gerasimov M. Vosstanovlenie lica po cerepu. Moskva: Izdat. Akademii Nauk: SSSR, 1955. 24. Stephan CN, Norris RM, Henneberg M. Does sexual dimorphism in facial soft tissue depths justify sex distinction in craniofacial identification? J Forensic Sci 2005;50:513–8. 25. De Greef S, Claes P, Vandermeulen D, Mollemans W, Suetens P, Willems G. Large- scale in-vivo Caucasian facial soft tissue thickness database for craniofacial reconstruction. Forensic Sci Int 2006;159(Suppl 1):126–46. 26. Katzmarzyk PT, Malina RM. Obesity and relative subcutaneous fat distribution among Canadians of First Nation and European ancestry. Int J Obes 1998;22:1127–31. 27. First Nations Regional Longitudinal Health Survey (RHS) 2002/03. Results for adults, youth and children living in first nations communities. Ottawa, ON, Canada: RHS, 2007. 28. Huculak M. In vivo facial tissue depth measurements of African Nova Scotian children for 3-D forensic facial reconstruction [dissertation]. Halifax, NS: Saint Mary’s University, 2010. 29. Codinha S. Facial soft tissue thickness for the Portuguese adult population. Forensic Sci Int 2009;184:80, e1-7. 30. Kollman J, B€uchly W. Die Persistenz der rassenund die reconstruction der physiognomie prahistorischer schadel. Archiv f€ur Anthropologie 1898;25:329–59. 31. Sutton PRN. Bizygomatic diameter: the thickness of the soft tissues over the zygions. Am J Phys Anthropol 1969;30:303–10. 32. Stephan CN, Simpson EK. Facial soft tissue depths in craniofacial identification(part 1): an analytical review. J Forensic Sci 2008;53:1257–72. 33. Deurenberg P, Yap M, van Staveren WA. Body mass index and percent body fat: a meta analysis among different ethnic groups. Int J Obes 1998;22:1164–71. 34. Gatliff BP. Facial sculpture on the skull for identification. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 1984;5:327–32. 35. Ogawa H. Anatomical study on the Japanese head by the X-ray cephalometry. J Tokyo Dent Coll Soc [Shika Gakuho] 1960;60:17–34. 36. Wilkinson C. Forensic facial reconstruction. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2004. 37. Tyrell AJ, Evison MP, Chamberlain AT, Green MA. Forensic three dimension facial reconstruction: historical review and contemporary developments. J Forensic Sci 1997;42:653–61.
10
JOURNAL OF FORENSIC SCIENCES
38. Feik SA, Glover JE. Growth of children’s faces. In: Clement JG, Ranson DL, editors. Craniofacial identification in forensic medicine. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1998;203–24. 39. Farkas LG, Posnick JC, Hreczko TM. Growth patterns of the face: a morphometric study. Cleft Palate Craniofac J 1992;29(4):308–15. 40. Stephan CN, Simpson EK. Facial soft tissue depths in craniofacial identification (part 2): an analytical review of the published sub-adult data. J Forensic Sci 2008;53:1273–9.
Additional information and reprint requests: Tanya R. Peckmann, Ph.D. Department of Anthropology Saint Mary’s University 923 Robie Street Halifax, NS B3H 3C3 Canada E-mail:
[email protected]
