HAMBURG REYKJAVIK GLASGOW - A COMPARATIVE STUDY

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HAMBURG
REYKJAVIKGLASGOWA Comparative StudyHAMBURG
REYKJAVIKGLASGOWA Comparative Study

HAMBURG
REYKJAVIK
GLASGOW
A
Comparative Study
HAMBURG
REYKJAVIK
GLASGOW
A
Comparative Study
TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 3
HAMBURG, GERMANY 4
LIGHT HISTORY 4
RESIDENTIAL LIVING STANDARDS 4
ECONOMY 5
GLASGOW, SCOTLAND 7
LIGHT HISTORY 7
URBAN FORM AND RENEWAL 8
REYKJAVIK, ICELAND 12
LIGHT HISTORY 12
URBAN DEVELOPMENT 12
COMPARISON/CONTRAST 14
CONCLUSION 16
BIBLIOGRAPHY 17
APPENDIX 19



INTRODUCTION

In this comparative study of three European cities: Glasgow, Reykjavik, and Hamburg, we see a range of interesting histories, from the complex like Glasgow, to the simple, like Reykjavik. It is interesting to see the urban form of each one and how each cities' form reflects its history in a significant way. In these older cities, history is probably the most direct influence to the way these cities are structured (and, as part of that history, the industrial and economic factors that power them).

These three cities are all (mostly) Germanic, yet, interestingly, their stories are not ubiquitous among the three. Hamburg and Reykjavik were directly settled by Germanic peoples, yet Reykjavik was a small farm established by a Norseman followed by a fishing village that urbanized based on royal decree, whereas Hamburg formed more organically around its shipping industry. Glasgow and Hamburg have very similar if not identical industrial history, yet Hamburg was directly Germanic whereas Glasgow originally began as a Celtic settlement (the Saxony and Germanic influence came later).

Reykjavik is a newer city, whereas Glasgow and Hamburg have a gradual development across many ages and have many layers of urban form. By way of contrast, Reykjavik is the outlier, but it is noteworthy to use it a reference to the difference between historical development and more modern ones (something highlighted in the redevelopment projects in Glasgow). And yet, in all forms, we see that cities share in, and are products of, its people. And the people are where it all matters.


HAMBURG, GERMANY

LIGHT HISTORY

Hamburg was once its own country, until the mid-1800s. Now it is a city located in northern Germany. It is a city located 37 miles south of the North Sea on the Alster River at the head of the Elbe River estuary. It originated as a settlement around the fortress Hamburg, which was probably built by Charles I; the King of Italy in 774, and in 800 the first emperor in western Europe. Early in the ninth century, it and played a significant role in the Christianizing of the Scandinavians to the north. On a number of occasions, until the early 11th century, the city was plundered by Danish and Slavic raiders. An alliance with Lübeck in 1241 eventually led to the formation of the Hanseatic League (a commercial and defense of group that tried to protect their markets and trade in towns along the coast which dominated the trade industry). Because of the Hanseatic League, Hamburg flourished. It gained local independence in 1292 and was made a free city within the Holy Roman Empire in 1510.

Hamburg was occupied by the French under Napoleon early in the 19th century. In 1815, after the Napoleonic Wars, the city joined the German Confederation. A great fire in 1842 caused widespread destruction to the city. Hamburg joined the North German Confederation in 1867 and became a state (of which the city of Hamburg resides and they both share, the city and state, an Eastern border with each other) in Germany in 1871. It has become Germany's second-largest city in population, 1,675,200 people (Europe's largest cities), and it measures 15 miles East to West and 21 miles from North to South.

Hamburg's trade, being one of the lead ports of the world, was virtually destroyed during World War I, but by the 1930's Hamburg was once again one of the leading ports of the world. During World War II, approximately 55,000 people were killed by allied (or accidental) bombings (Miller, 1974).

Hamburg has over 800 years of history as a port city. It has one of the largest seaports in Europe, which handles approximately 107,000,000 tons of freight per year. Hamburg is also a very important of in the European rail network. It has an estimated 800 long-distance trains that leave its stations each day. Hamburg's economy has been significantly inflated because of its status and serving most of Europe as one of the main port cities.


RESIDENTIAL LIVING STANDARDS

The main employment area of Hamburg is made up of the city-center district businesses and the docklands. It also has industrial sites located near the docks of the port. Because of the port being such a big stakeholder of ports in the world, about 50% of the population in Hamburg's inner-city area are of non-German descent ("Europe's largest cities"). The better-off social groups tend to live in the residential areas on the north bank of the Elbe which lies to the West of the city or along the Alster River; a large river which flows through central Hamburg from north to south. A very popular feature is a large lake in the center of the city which is formed by damming the Alster River called the Aussenalster Lake.

Purely residential areas can mainly be found in the outer city limits. Many of the inner-city districts are mixed-use (traditionally residential areas have been experiencing more and more commercial development). In the past, the middle classes moved out of older houses close to the city centre, and the primarily low-cost accommodations they left were taken over by lower-income families of the population. Each year, about one resident in six moves house within Hamburg. Some residents of Hamburg move from the outer city into the inner-city. This leads to population and class structure changes.


ECONOMY

Hamburg is heavily dependent on its Seaport being that it is one of the busiest ports in the world. This has helped turn Hamburg into a major transportation hub. Because of all of the high-speed trains (S-bahn) it houses and those connecting to other trains routes in the area, and being connected to four major motorways in Hamburg, it has become the most important railway junctions for people to be able to sustain companies within the area. Also, there are several bridges and tunnels which connect the northern and southern parts of the city which allows for people to easily commute to their jobs.

There are many machine and chemical factories, oil refineries, and plants for processing metals, tobacco, and foods. Other driving forces of Hamburg's economy include banking, printing and publishing, and radio and/or television broadcasting companies. There is also several large fishing fleets which operate out of the port. Thus, shipbuilding and ship repair also play a large role in the economy.

Approximately 50 years ago it and the rest of Germany was afflicted by sluggish economic growth. As the port gained notoriety, international businesses started to build there. In the last 10 years, the city has also developed into a high-performance service center. All of its economic development has led to the incorporation of an international airport within Hamburg's city limits. There are 17 international airports in all of Germany, although, the Hamburg Airport is the oldest airport, founded in 1911, in Germany still in operation. It is the fifth busiest airport in Germany serving approximately 13,000,000 passengers per year. There is also a smaller airport in Hamburg; this airport is called The Finkenwerder Airport. It is used only as a company airport for Airbus. Airbus is a commercial line of airplane but in this case is a cargo end of the company.

Several of the industrial activities have been modified and focused toward future-oriented high-technology products. With the increase in the globalization of goods, Hamburg's economy has been given a boost; along with further development. The port has become known as "a Gateway to China" because of the increase that has been seen in international trade.

The city of Hamburg not only receives its economic status from port-based businesses, it also has several locally found businesses which help with sustaining its economy. Hamburg is home to University of Hamburg, which was founded in 1919. There is also the Hamburg State Opera House, the Hamburg Ballet, a couple of Symphony companies, and several art and history museums. Another big contributor to the economy is the St. Pauli entertainment district. The St. Pauli entertainment district is located on the Elbe River, houses a world famous "red light district", and the entire entertainment district has a population of approximately 30,000 residents in it.






GLASGOW, SCOTLAND


The Statue of Wellington and its famous "Cone Head"

Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland and the third largest in the United Kingdom ("News: Census", 2013). It, like much of the country and continent, has an extremely rich history. This city has seen many triumphs and strife of human history; it has spread across ages, and reflects both the highs and the lows of the evolution of planning practice. It was prime in its heyday and became one of the worst cities in the country. It still has a downtrodden reputation among British citizens, yet many revitalization efforts have given it a good repute among visitors and is now among the most livable in the world ("2012 Survey", 2013) . The city has a proud culture and humor. This is reflected in the recent "Keep the Cone" campaign, where public outcry resisted government efforts to prevent the populace from placing a cone on the head of the Statue of Wellington (see figure above) - a custom practiced for as long as many residents remember; (Williams, 2013) because that's just the kind of thing Glaswegians do, and the kind of place this is.


LIGHT HISTORY

Like many British cities, Glasgow has grown immensely through industry despite its rather humble beginnings. Founded by St. Mungo as a location for a cathedral (Devine and Jackson, 1995), the city became a major trading center during the colonial period because of its port location on the River Clyde. Its location north of Ireland made it an important forwarding station to the American colonies and became a major player in the tobacco trade. A group of elites called the Tobacco Lords took no issue with extravagance and opulence, and Glasgow quickly became a city of the elite and earned prestige throughout the country (Clemens and Devine, 1976). It was during this era the Glasgow was called the "cleanest and beautifullest, and best built city in Britain, London excepted" (Defoe, 1721). Glasgow boomed to over a million people, and the city was the first to establish a modern-day police force during this period (Bunyard, 1978).

After the American Revolution, the American tobacco trade obviously suffered. Glasgow went on the decline until the Industrial Revolution, when its geographical position supported the shipbuilding industry. Although the wealth of the city led to many ambitious projects, such as the creation of the second subway system in the UK, and a bustling tram system (Wright and McClean, 1997), this sort of heavy industry did nothing to improve the quality of life for Glaswegians. Glasgow was another Dickensian setting like Manchester.

To wit, at the top of the 20th century, Glasgow was arguably the most violent city in the UK (Bartie, 2010). The sectarianism that troubled the northern isles affected the city for the better part of its history since the Anglican schism as Protestants seeking work migrated to the bustling industry. This led to the creation of the feared Glasgow razor gangs. On top of that, housing problems were rampant throughout the city, creating a semi-revolutionary and politically radical labor movement known as "Red Clydeside," inciting hundreds of strikes and the infamous riot known as the "Battle of George Square" that lasted nearly a full day and into the night (McShane, 1992).

Things did not get better for Glasgow. The city was devastated in the Depression and the Second World War. Blight reigned supreme for many decades, even as recently as the 1980s, when Glasgow was showcased on the cover of the Observer Magazine as being "the worst corner of Britian" ("Glasgow", 2013), a reputation that carries over to the present, despite the cities massive, and successful, efforts of renewal.


URBAN FORM AND RENEWAL

Glasgow CathedralGlasgow CathedralOld Tolbooth, Merchant CityOld Tolbooth, Merchant CityGlasgow has gone through many changes over the years. The town was first established at the Glasgow Cathedral, and the market town that formed beneath it, still called Merchant City to this day. This neighborhood comprises most of Old Glasgow and its medieval architecture, and became the location of many of the Tobacco Lords mansions. During the reign of King George III and the crux of the rational thinking of the Scottish Enlightenment, a central grid was plotted, perhaps the most developed grid structure on the whole isle.
Glasgow Cathedral
Glasgow Cathedral
Old Tolbooth, Merchant City
Old Tolbooth, Merchant City

George Square and City ChambersGeorge Square and City ChambersUrbanism continued toward the west, following the call of industry and the portions of the River Clyde wide enough to dredge new harbors. As with many European cities, fringe areas and landed estates were developed into large parklands, and any growth followed the bounds of cadastral parcelization. It is interesting to see on the map that property boundaries tend to follow ridges or slopes, no matter how shallow, and at no particular pattern. The undeveloped land seems rather stringy and spontaneous, as these just show areas where cadastral property lines do not touch or intersect - the "gaps" in between parcels.
George Square and City Chambers
George Square and City Chambers

Industry defined the landscape of Glasgow from the dawn of the Industrial Revolution. Class segregation (and continuing sectarianism) became an increasing issue in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The city maintained its beauty in its elite quarters, but was a dreary place for the proletariat. There seems to be no significant reason for the north side versus the south side other than the northern end of the city other than the northern side of the river is slightly more hilly and possibly less desirable, so the slums developed on the "path of least [social] resistance". Transit in the city was built by private companies centered on getting workers to the industry. These transit systems are quite literally centered on the industrial core, as the subway system forms a ring around the docklands, not around the center centre as one would assume.

After the devastation of WWII (both economically and physically from the bombing from the Luftwaffe) the city took the opportunity to rebuild and revitalize using the tenants of what is now called the Bruce Report. As with many postwar planning projects, the plan was overwhelmingly modernist. The report called for the complete rebuilding of the city centre and the relocation of the population to the outskirts, in the now infamous British new town projects. A Haussmanian proposal for an Inner Ring road was provided, and the city was to transition to a service-based economy.


A section of the City Centre as proposed by the Bruce Plan (Retrieved from http://www.theglasgowstory.com/imageview.php?inum=TGSE00885)
The Bruce Report was not the only plan for redevelopment at the time, but it was easily the most influential. (Ellis, Walton, & Clout, 1986). Not every tenant was prescribed to (most of the city center was saved) and the ring road (now M8, unique in the UK for being the only motorway inside the urban core) The M8 Motorway, a portion of the Bruce ReportThe M8 Motorway, a portion of the Bruce Reportwas only partially built. But the housing project were and all the slums were demolished. It changed the face the city in a significant way.
The M8 Motorway, a portion of the Bruce Report
The M8 Motorway, a portion of the Bruce Report

These projects suffered from the same plight of modernist housing projects we have seen in this country. At first, the new redevelopment attracted more residents and there was a small boon in the 1950s. The city did not transition to a service-based economy as the Bruce Report suggested, however, and industry reigned supreme once more, this time with new immigrant workers (significantly, Italians, Lebanese, and Asian immigrants). The city grew to over a million people and was one of the most densely populated in the world (Kyd, 1953).

As expected, these projects were largely failures, not the least of which being the Red Road complex. If there is any equivalent to Pruitt-Igoe in the UK, it is this, except it lasted much longer before being demolished (and it is still not completely torn down yet).

The Red Road ComplexThe Red Road ComplexThe blight caused by these projects, together with the decline of industry and the existing blight remaining from the pre-war industry made Glasgow, indeed, the "worst corner of Britain." It did not help this reputation that life expectancy for the average Glaswegian, even the wealthy, was (and has been since) 30% lower than the rest of the country, in something known as the "Glasgow Effect". It remains an epidemiological mystery as to why this trend exists, as other cities with similar qualities of life do not show these effects ("Behind", 2013). But, regardless of the cause, this says something about the state of life in this city at the time. If it was not a direct cause of this fact, it certainly did not help it.
The Red Road Complex
The Red Road Complex

Enter the late 1980s. Perhaps incited from the Observer magazine cover, Glasgow began a major urban renewal that has been ongoing ever since. Starting with the "Glasgow's miles better" campaign and literally sandblasting the grime off of the cities buildings ("BBC", 2013), to the Garden Festival on the docklands (part of a nation-wide plan to rejuvenate derelict industrial lands) (Theokas, 2004) and the redevelopment on festival grounds, the city started to clean itself up.

Glasgow Garden Festival on old docklandsGlasgow Garden Festival on old docklandsThat process continues today as Glasgow seeks to redefine itself and shed the reputation of the past. It is becoming more service-based and is working toward becoming, once again, the cultural capital of Scotland. The demolition of failed housing projects continues, as does the redevelopment of the docklands and riverfront area. Almost as if following the script of paradigm, the city has rejected the modernist movement and taken on a very obvious post-modern taste. The Clyde Waterfront Regeneration Project, launched in 2001, has over 250 constituent projects, including new museums, walkable and bikable bridges, and a new financial district, and has been continuing for over a decade. ("Project Timeline", 2013)
Glasgow Garden Festival on old docklands

Glasgow Garden Festival on old docklands


Glasgow is now in its renaissance, and has won numerous awards from various societies and schools, a far cry from the Glasgow from just twenty years ago ("Glasgow", 2013). Currently the city's focus is on the 2014 Commonwealth Games, of which it is hosting. This, in combination with some recent broad reform in local government structure throughout Scotland, and we can only anticipate more and greater improvement. Perhaps it will one day rival London once again.

REYKJAVIK, ICELAND

LIGHT HISTORY

The city of Reykjavik began as a single farm owned by a Norse settler Ingolfur Arnarson, and it was only accessible by a path directly linking the farm and the sea. Arnarson's farm was the only settlement around for miles and even the closest neighbors were small rural farms as well. The land around modern-day Reykjavik is perfectly suited for agriculture considering its close proximity to a source of water (albeit salinated) and especially the volcanic soil enriched by minerals from deep within the earth. Arnarson reportedly established his farm in 874 and the area now known as Reykjavik did not begin to develop until the 18th century (Karlsson, p. 12).

Many years passed and nearly a thousand years after Arnarson first landed in modern-day Reykjavik the farm was given by the Danish crown to an institution for industrial development. This allowed for the expansion of industries such as wool, fishing, and sulphur mining (Karlsson, p. 174). These industries continued to develop and improve over time until Reykjavik became a small seaside trading village with a charter from the King of Denmark. At first this charter allowed only Danish citizens to trade but in the late 19th century this right was extended to all people of Reykjavik.

This decision lead to massive economic growth. The residents and business owners of Reykjavik decided they wanted to establish Reykjavik as the capital city of Iceland. In order to do so, they began working to bring civic and government services and offices into the boundaries of the town. Iceland's legislative body, the Althing, (which had been established 150 years after Arnarson's settlement) was restored in 1845 and was followed by the creation of the Minister of Iceland's office in 1904.


URBAN DEVELOPMENT

Life in Reykjavik was fairly static until the Great Depression hit, when a large amount of workers in Iceland were suddenly unemployed. This state of distress continued until the Second World War when Allied forces captured the city. These forces commissioned multiple buildings and an airport which put many of the unemployed back into the workforce and led to the expansion of the built environment in Reykjavik.

After the end of World War II the majority of rural dwellers moved into the city which led to rapid and sprawling housing production. Many of the homes constructed at this time were built in a cross between a modern and post-modern style and were often laid out in a smaller form of the traditional American-style suburb. These homes often had the shape and form of modern structures but the coloring of them is distinctly postmodern.

Upon examination of the urban settlement pattern of Reykjavik via satellite imagery it is immediately clear that the majority of human settlements are located along the coast with immediate access to the water as well as in the more level terrain of the island of Iceland. The access to water reveals the ocean and waterways as the main form of import and export transportation. Reykjavik has developed only a few highways and major arterial roads in between suburban and urbanized areas. The majority of the materials used to build the new city of Reykjavik didn't even travel by these arterial roads; a temporary heavy rail system was installed and later deconstructed.


COMPARISON/CONTRAST

Glasgow, Hamburg, and Reykjavik are all considered to be countries first settled by pagans, or the people who worship multiple "old world" gods and goddesses. It is often thought Christianity and its followers swept across the land razing any culture which had already been there. This is not the case. The majority of cities, such as the three in this report, which were considered to be solely pagan and then solely Christian were actually hosts to both religions at once. There is even a poetess in Reykjavik recorded as telling stories of Thor challenging Christ to a duel with Christ refusing out of fear (Karlsson, p. 18). There are even reported pagan festivals and rituals suspiciously similar to Christian practices (Karlsson, p.19). Many Icelanders adopted Christianity at the turn of the 11th century when the King of Norway sent Christian missionaries to all of his realms, but continued to keep their pagan heritage alive (Karlsson, p. 33).

Glasgow, Hamburg, and Reykjavik were all settled on top of the most level land available within their surrounding areas. Their chosen locations were also accessible by a system of rivers, which would allow for the transport of goods as well as irrigation for crops. Both Glasgow and Hamburg originated as a medieval city centered around a cathedral with a first ring of an organically-formed city surrounding it. Over time, of course, a large amount of the original buildings have been replaced by newer, often shinier, structures. Reykjavik, on the other hand, is a classic Functional City. Reykjavik is laid out by function with strong zoning ordinances and efficient structures. Residents have even been noted to complain that their modern and postmodern homes are different from one another (Valsson, p. 142). Some Functional City urban form was introduced into Glasgow during the Scottish Enlightenment, as a grid system was surveyed, and later under the Bruce Report, but the city has largely been built up with no planned real planned form. Parks exist on old landed estates and industry developed along the river, all naturally.

At their birth these three cities relied mainly on the distance a human being could walk to access basic needs and services. Hamburg and Glasgow, being medieval cities, were very easy to navigate by foot and did not require too much effort to attend to one's daily business. Reykjavik, on the other hand, after the original fishing village was eradicated in favor of a new modern city was never meant to be walkable. In all three cities rivers were often used to transport goods in and out of an area. Both Glasgow and Hamburg installed first heavy rail followed by light commuter rail which have been improved upon and used to this day. In response to the value of Glasgow, private investors and companies installed transit systems (subway and streetcars) to transport workers from the residential neighborhoods in the north to work in the docklands; it was not a planned affair. In contrast, the only rail system in Reykjavik was constructed to transport wood materials to the coast to build docks and was then ripped up to use the remaining materials. Consequently, Reykjavik has one of the highest rates of car ownership per capita in the world and lowest rates of connectivity with its neighboring developments (Valsson, p. 142).

All three cities revolve around their proximity to water and the industry it provides. Both Glasgow and Hamburg are and historically have been major ports for international trade, Glasgow oriented to the Americas and Hamburg oriented to Scandinavia and passage to the north. Both cities economies center around these ports and, by extension, shipbuilding and maintenance. These ports draw heavy industry and migrant workers, and as is often the case, these cities have suffered from some blight and quality of life issues. But, Glasgow in particular has begun to redefine itself with a more service and finance economy as the problems heavy industry has caused has given Glasgow a rather reprehensible reputation.

Reykjavik, being a smaller city, is not home to the heavy industry of Glasgow and Hamburg, but its port still serves a major purpose, it being the largest and capital city of Iceland. Trade here is more import than export, and the city never became a major world trading center due to its location in the far northern Atlantic. Industry was instead based off fishing and sulfur mining.

Population movements of these three cities can be most simply characterized as overwhelming migration into the city from the countryside. After the more recent agricultural revolutions took place farms no longer required the entire family's presence to run effectively. Those who were no longer required to work on the farm found they could increase their income by moving into the city and working in industry jobs. In the cases of Glasgow and Hamburg the city was large enough to absorb the incoming workers. The heavy industry in Glasgow not only brought in rural folk, but invited immigrants from the rest of the country and the continent. Reykjavik, however, the surrounding countryside was far more populated than the "urbanized" fishing village, so much so that the population of the countryside had reached capacity. The movement of these excess people into the, now rapidly, industrializing city relieved a large amount of ecological stress on Reykjavik's surrounding countryside (Karlsson, p.233). Today all three cities have a relatively balanced inflow and outflow of residents.

The industries of these three cities are one of the most individual aspects about them because they are directly tied to the natural resources and other assets held by the city. These primary industries changed over time as new resources were discovered or other problems presented themselves. At times the industry in an area could actually jeopardize the safety of the city itself. For example, during the Second World War both Glasgow and Hamburg were major ports of trade and were consequently bombed by opposing forces in order to try to cripple the enemy economically and physically. Reykjavik escaped these bombings because at that time it was not a major producer of any particularly useful resource. Due to this underdevelopment, Iceland's overall neutrality in the War, and its remote and extremely difficult to reach location, Reykjavik escaped the damage Glasgow and Hamburg suffered.


CONCLUSION

Glasgow, Hamburg and Reykjavik are all European cities with cultural and historic similarities although they are nearly entirely unique in their own right. Glasgow has transformed from a medieval city surrounding a cathedral to a bustling industrial center, degraded to a despised and ridiculed place, and then became again one of the premier cultural and financial centers in Europe. Hamburg has followed a similar journey to become a European media and industrial center. Although it lies across the Atlantic Ocean from its European siblings, Reykjavik has developed into Iceland's center of population, government, and commerce.

A major finding of this project is how much the natural resources and available industries and technologies can shape the city over time. We found a specific moment in time to be one of the most important variables in the potential success or failure of a city. A mountain filled with coal would help no nation if coal-fired electricity production systems had not yet been created just as much as a purveyor of Victorian gas lamps would have a difficult time selling their wares today. Economic factors for these European cities are the primary driver in urban form, above all else.


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