Global environmental concern: An anomaly for postmaterialism

Global

Environmental

Concern:

An Anomaly

for Postmaterialism* RileyE. Dunlap, WashingtonState University Angela G. Mertig,MichiganState University Brechinand Kempton'sfundamentalpoint (1994) is thatthe emergence of widespread concern for environmentalquality in nonindustrialized nations poses an anomaly for the theoryof postmaterialist-value change because those nationshave yetto experiencethe economicsecurityneeded to generatethe postmaterialist values thatpresumablyspawn environmentalism. While not agreeingwith everydetail, we are in basic agreement withtheirargument. We have drawn conclusions quite similar to those of Brechin and Kemptonfromthe Gallup surveythat formedthe primarybasis of their analyses (and for which Dunlap servedas projectdirector).Employinga wider range of measures, using item means ratherthan percentagesof proenvironmental responses,and takinginto account missingdata (all of which are "refinements"of Brechinand Kempton's analysis),we arrived at a similarconclusion:national wealth (whethermeasuredby per capita GNP or its log) is more apt to be negativelythan positivelyrelated to citizens'environmental awarenessand concern(Dunlap and Mertig,1995). Kidd and Lee (1997) argue that theseresultsare irrelevantbecause naand that the theoryaptional wealth is not a measureof postmaterialism to not to nations. Yet, proponentsof postmaterialism plies only individuals, data on economicdevelopment, national-level frequently employaggregate, and various attitudes to the values, theory(see, e.g., Inglehart, "verify" 1995a, 1995b). Most notably,Abramsonand Inglehart(1995:143) state that "the value-changetheorypredictsthatwealthycountriesshould have higher levels of Post-materialismthan poorer societies. This findingis by stronglysupported[r = .68 betweenGNP/capitaand postmaterialism] our cross-nationalanalyses." It thereforeseems odd for Kidd and Lee to argue that the theoryof change cannot be testedvia aggregate,national-level postmaterialist-value withinnations(whichis that such tests assume value uniformity and data, have to one does not not the case). Indeed, regardnationalwealth clearly *Direct State E. Dunlap, ofSociology, allcorrespondence toRiley Washington Department WA99164-4020. Pullman, University, Volume SOCIALSCIENCEQUARTERLY, 78,Number 1,March1997 TX 78713-7819 © 1997bytheUniversity ofTexasPress, P.O.Box7819,Austin,

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values to recognizethatthe theoryclearly as a "proxy" forpostmaterialist for environmental since concern quality is one of the quality-ofimplies life values inherentin postmaterialism(Inglehart,1995b)- that there should be a significantly positiverelationshipbetweennations' degreeof concern. economicdevelopmentand thecitizenry'sdegreeof environmental citizens' value as do both Kidd and Lee measures of orientations, Including and Inglehart(1995b), simplyoperationalizeswhat Brechinand Kempton - it doesn't underminethe legitimacyof treatas a "hypotheticalconstruct" the latter'sanalysesand conclusions. A problemencounteredby Kidd and Lee and by Inglehart(1995b) in dealingwiththe anomaly of highlevelsof public concernforthe environment in poor nations is that the World Values Survey(WVS) produced similarresults.Since theresultsare reportedonlypartiallyby Kidd and Lee and by Inglehart,we computed correlationsbetween national-levelresponses to seven individualenvironmentalattitudeitemsemployedin the WVS and both national scores on the twelve-itempostmaterialismindex nationsforwhich data are available. and per capita GNP forthirty-six Two findingsin Table 1 stand out. First,foreveryitem,nationalwealth is more stronglyrelatedto environmental concernthan is postmaterialism (in fact,thelattertypicallyexplainslittleadditionalvariance).Second,three measuresof proenvironmental attitudesare negativelycorrelatedwithboth and national wealth. postmaterialism The one discrepancybetweenthe WVS surveyand both the Gallup and Harris surveysused by Brechinand Kemptonis thatin the lattertwo willingnessto make economicsacrificesforenvironmental qualitywere among the few items found to be positivelyrelated to per capita GNP. Closer comparisonsamongthesesurveysisn'tpossiblebecause thebroadlyfocused attitudes WVS examinedonly limitedaspectsor facetsof environmental environto make economic seriousness of sacrifices,perceived willingness - and ignored the mental problems, and approval of environmentalism of environmental dimensions problems(see Gray, 1985, on geographical the multifacetednatureof "environmentalconcern," and Rohrschneider, 1988, on the importanceof geographicalreferent).Nonetheless,as both Kidd and Lee and Inglehart(1995b) recognize,overall,the national-level WVS results(like thosefromtheGallup and Harrissurveys)are anomalous forthe postmaterialist explanationof environmentalism.1 Like Inglehart(1995b), Kidd and Lee relyheavilyon the "hoc" twins, "ad" and "post," to explain the anomaly.They offerthreetypesof ad or post hoc explanations.First,and foremost,objectiveenvironmentalconditions,which were notablyabsent in postmaterialist explanationsof the of environmentalism within industrial nations (Lowe and Rudig, emergence ^As Brechin andKempton (1994)note,theanomaly posedbythehighlevelsofpublic concern forenvironmental inthese within found isreinforced quality poornations surveys by therapidgrowth ofenvironmental activism within suchnations (see,e.g.,Taylor, 1995).

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TABLE 1 betweenEnvironmental Correlations ConcernMeasuresand GNP percapita Scores across 36 CountriesintheWorldValuesSurvey and Post-materialism with Correlation Environmental ConcernMeasures3

Multiple Correlation R2 GNP/CapitabPostmaterialism0 .11 -.34 -.26 .34 Giveincomed -.21 -.13 .22 .05 Pay taxes6 Notcost mef .30 .37 .13 .36 .11 .27 .30 .09 Combatunemployment9 .14 Too anxioush .37 .29 .37 .44 .44 .31 .20 Noturgent' -.57 -.41 .57 .32 Ecologymovement Notes:The nations are India,Nigeria, China,Turkey, Chile,Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Lithuania, Brazil, Mexico, Belarus, Russia,Latvia, Estonia, Argentina, Hungary, Portugal, SouthKorea,Ireland, Britain, Netherlands, Austria, Spain,EastGermany, Italy, Belgium, France,Canada,theUnited States,Iceland,WestGermany, Denmark, Finland, Norway, andJapan. Sweden, in each nation takenfrom prepublication pages of Percentagesagreeing/disagreeing inBasáñez(1995). andMoreno Basáñez,Inglehart, (inpress);also included for are for1990from WorldBank(1992),exceptthefigures bGNPpercapitafigures World Resources Institute andLatvia, which arefor1991from Estonia, Belarus, (1994). from Abramson and Inglehart valuescoreson thetwelve-item measure (1995: cCountry 124-125). "I amnowgoingtoreadoutsomestatements abouttheenvironment. dQuestion wording: or Foreachone I readout,can youtellmewhether youagreestrongly, agree,disagree, ifI werecertain 'I wouldgivepartofmyincome that the would money strongly disagree. " be usedtoprevent environmental score= percentage pollution.' Country "strongly agree" or"agree." intaxesiftheextra environmental e"lwouldagreetoan increase is usedtoprevent money score= percentage pollution." Country "strongly agree"or"agree." butitshouldnotcostmeany f"The has to reduceenvironmental pollution government Forcorrelational score= percentage agree"or"agree." money." country "strongly Original we reversed thesigns,so thathighscoresreflect responses. proenvironmental analysis inthiscountry, we shalljusthavetoacceptenvi9"lfwe wanttocombatunemployment For score= percentage ronmental agree"or"agree." country "strongly problems." Original we reversed thesigns,so thathighscoresreflect correlational proenvironmental analysis responses. score= perh"AII thetalkaboutpollution makespeopletooanxious." country Original thesigns,so we reversed analysis agree"or"agree."Forcorrelational centage"strongly thathighscoresreflect responses. proenvironmental thanoften is less urgent theenvironment andfighting suggested." pollution '"Protecting Forcorrelational score= percentage analysis agree"or"agree." country "strongly Original thesigns,so thathighscoresreflect we reversed responses. proenvironmental forpublic andmovements ofgroups "There area number jQuestion suplooking wording: whichI readout,canyoutellmewhether movements you port.Foreachofthefollowing " Counornature movement ofthismovement? ordisapprove protection.' 'Ecology approve "approve strongly." tryscore= percentage

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Global EnvironmentalConcern

Tl

1986:518), are now given a prominentrole. The fact that local environmentaldegradationtends to be worse in poorer nations accounts forthe orienfact that theircitizens- despite holdingprimarilymaterialist-value tations- are oftenmore concernedabout environmentalquality than are theircounterpartsin wealthynations.Indeed,"This is scarcelya surprising finding;it is more or less what common sense would lead one to expect" (Inglehart,1995b:61). It is peculiarthat objectiveconditionsare attributedsuch a vital role in when theywere virtuallyiggeneratingThird World environmentalism, in accountsof the emergenceof environmentalism nored in postmaterialist industrializednations (Inglehart,1990), and they are dealt with far too facilely.Inglehart(1995b:66) correctlynotes thatgood indicatorsof environmentalquality for nations are not available, but aftercontrollingfor two measuresof air qualityin a major citywithineach of eighteennations, he firmlyconcludes that both objectiveconditionsand national value orito environmental entationsinfluencenations' "sensitivity protection."The use of such a limitedindicatorof nationwideenvironmentalconditions, available in fewerthan half of the nations in the WVS, makes Kidd and Lee's conclusionthat"supportforenvironmentalism tendsto be influenced values than by risingpollutionlevels" premore by risingpostmaterialist matureto say the least (as does theirrelianceon cross-sectionalratherthan longitudinaldata). Use of such "a simple stimulus-response model" (Inglehart,1995b:64) of the role of objectiveenvironmental problemsseemsmuchtoo simplistic. Besides assumingthat environmentalquality is uniformlyworse in poor nations,it assumes a strongrelationshipbetweenpeople's personal exposureto problemsand theirconcernoverthem.This ignoresthedocumented complexitiesof "environmentalperception"(see, e.g., Whyte,1985) and the factthatpersonalcharacteristics (frompsychologicalto demographic), social networks,media,policymakers, and so on, mayhave at least as much influenceas do objectiveconditions(see, e.g., Hohm, 1976). It also neglects the geographicaland temporaldimensionsof environmental problems,yet it is clear thatmanypeople are moreworriedabout global thanlocal problems and futurethan currentconditions (Dunlap, Gallup, and Gallup, con1993). Ratherthancreatinga falsedichotomyin whichenvironmental cern must be attributedeitherto postmaterialist values or to exposure to environmental degradation,we should concentrateon "unpacking"thediverseways in whichpeople formenvironmental perceptionsand how those are influenced conditions at perceptions by varyinggeographicalscales and time horizons.2 differing 2Although Rohrschneider oftheenvironment has (1988)doesnotshow"thatthecondition a clearimpact on. . . attitudes," as KiddandLeeassert, hedoesshowthelinkages between oflocalenvironmental national andglobalproblems, andsupport for perceptions problems, environmental theimportance ofoursuggestion. protection, thereby illustrating

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28

Social ScienceQuarterly

Anotherway in which both Kidd and Lee and Inglehartexplain away Third World environmental concernis by transforming it froma postmaconcern to a "health and survival"conterialist,quality-of-life materialist, cern.3While we agree that environmentalproblemsare increasinglyseen as threatsto human well-being,this is not limitedto the poorer,nonindustrializednations (Dunlap, Gallup, and Gallup, 1993). Residents of wealthynationslike the UnitedStatesexpressconcernover hazardous environmentalconditions,rangingfromlocal waste sites to ozone depletion (Dunlap, 1992), and theymay be more aware of such risksthan are their counterpartsin poor nations. Attributing unexpectedlyhigh levels of environmentalconcernto materialistvalues, or to environmental conditions, when it's convenientto do so amountsto makingthe postmaterialist exnonfalsifiable. planationof environmentalism A thirdway in which both Kidd and Lee and Inglehartdefendpostmaterialismtheoryin the face of anomalous resultsis to show that within nations thereis a relationshipbetweenindividuals'endorsementof postmaterialistvalues and theirexpressionsof environmental concern.Unfortunately,while the relationshipmay be substantialamong residentsof wealthynations,it is veryslightamong those of poor nations (Inglehart, 1995b:65)- reemphasizingthe limitedutilityof postmaterialismfor exeven at the individuallevel. In plainingThird World environmentalism, fact,the verysmall mean differencesin environmentalconcern between materialistsand postmaterialists reportedin Kidd and Lee's Table 4 raise the issue of "statisticalversussubstantivesignificance."The difference betweenmeans of 2.8 and 2.9 may be statisticallysignificant with a sample of over ten thousand,but it suggeststhat value orientationsare of very limitedutilityin explainingdiffering levelsof environmental concern.At a minimum,such modestresultssuggestthe importanceof continuedinvesconcern. tigationof the complex sourcesof environmental In sum, we agree with Brechinand Kempton's (1994) basic point that postmaterialist-value change is inadequate for explainingglobal environmentalconcern.Effortsto prove that it "works," whetherby attributing anomalous resultsto objectiveconditions,byredefining environmental protectionas a materialistgoal, or by shiftingfromaggregateto individual unitsof analysis,provide littleinsightinto the natureand sources of environmentalconcernand make the theoryof postmaterialist value change in nonfalsifiable. has too useful Inglehart'stheory proven explaininga vaof and social (Abramson riety contemporary changes Inglehart,1995; Inglehart,1990, 1995a) to be contortedto fitobviouslyanomalous findings. SSQ 3Theywouldpresumably therapidgrowth oflocal,grassroots environmentalism explain andminority communities intheUnited States (see,e.g.,Szasz,1994) among working-class inthesameway,sincethesesocialstrata tomanifest thestrong areunlikely postmaterialist tomotivate action. orientations assumed environmental

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