Glacial Environments

Part II

Continental and Glacial Systems

Chapter 11

Glacial Environments Renata G. Netto,*,1 Jacob S. Benner,† Luis A. Buatois,‡ Alfred Uchman,} M. Gabriela Ma´ngano,‡ John C. Ridge,† Vaidotas Kazakauskas} and Algirdas Gaigalas||,w *Geology Graduate Program, Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, Sa˜o Leopoldo, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, †Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, USA, ‡Department of Geological Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada, }Institute of Geological Sciences, Jagiellonian University, Krako´w, Poland, }Institute of Geology and Geography, Vilnius, Lithuania, ||Department of Geology and Mineralogy, Vilnius University, Cˇiurlionio, Vilnius, Lithuania 1 Corresponding author: e-mail: [email protected]

1. INTRODUCTION Studies using ichnology to improve paleoecological and paleoenvironmental interpretations in glacial environments are still in their infancy, and most reports have focused on the characterization of individual trace fossils and trace-fossil assemblages (e.g., Anderson, 1970, 1975a,b, 1976, 1981; Benner et al., 2008; Dias-Fabrı´cio and Guerra-Sommer, 1989; Fernandes et al., 1987; Gaigalas and Uchman, 2004; Gibbard and Dreimanis, 1978; Gibbard and Stuart, 1974; Knecht et al., 2009; Marques-Toigo et al., 1989; Netto and Goso, 1998; Savage, 1970, 1971; Uchman et al., 2008, 2009; Walter, 1985, 1986). However, the number of studies utilizing trace fossils for paleoenvironmental and paleoecological interpretations in glacial sediments and sedimentary rocks has grown in the past decade (e.g., Balistieri and Netto, 2002; Balistieri et al., 2002, 2003; Benner et al., 2009; Buatois and del Papa, 2003; Buatois and Ma´ngano, 1992, 1993, 1995a,b, 2003; Buatois et al., 2006, 2010; Gandini et al., 2007; Isbell et al., 2001; Lermen, 2006; Netto et al., 2009; Pazos, 2000, 2002a,b; Pazos et al., 2007; Schatz et al., 2011a,b; Trewin, 2000; Trewin et al., 2002; Walter and Suhr, 1998). Glacial environments are complex, as the rapid and spatially variable processes common in these environments are seen rarely in other sedimentary systems (Menzies, 2002). The dynamic interaction of glaciers and ice sheets with fluvial, eolian, lacustrine, and marine settings generates a great variety of landforms and facies associations (Hambrey, 1994). The movement of ice sheets w Deceased. Developments in Sedimentology, Vol. 64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-53813-0.00011-3 # 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

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during glaciations has strongly impacted the original landscape, promoting surficial weathering and deep erosion. During interglacial periods, immense meltwater discharges influenced sedimentation (Buatois et al., 2006, 2010) in addition to exerting erosional forces. Drastic oscillations in climate (Balistieri, 2003; Buatois et al., 2006, 2010; Netto et al., 2009) and the resulting change in the land surface of glaciated regions has impacted the distribution, abundance and, subsequently, evolution of biota through time. Large-scale glaciations occur about every 200 million years and five inferred global-scale glaciations are known to have impacted the biotic realm (e.g., Clark et al., 2009; Ehlers and Gibbard, 2004; Eyles, 1993; Hoffman et al., 1998; Isbell et al., 2003a,b; Le Heron, 2010; Rieu et al., 2007). Trace fossils from glacial environments are well documented in the Gondwana, and the Quaternary ice ages, and case studies of those glacial periods are presented herein. Thus, the objectives of this chapter are to discuss the main characteristics of trace-fossil assemblages from glacial environments, to evaluate the main abiotic stress factors that constrained tracemakers’ impact on trace-fossil abundance and diversity, and to characterize the overall trace-fossil distribution in glacial settings. Inherently, the discussion must be limited to those glacial environments which best preserve trace fossils, and while that includes primarily aquatic depositional environments, some emergent and fully terrestrial environments are considered as well.

2. ECOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSTRAINTS IN GLACIAL SETTINGS The exposure of new environments after the culmination of a glacial period stimulates dispersion of biota from glacial refugia and the establishment of new communities. Ecologic studies on biotic communities from Antarctica suggested that temporary freshwater ecosystems surrounded by ice might have provided oases for a few aquatic species adapted to extreme conditions (Brinck, 1966). In other cases, ice-free high-elevation areas may have provided refuge for certain terrestrial organisms. These resilient species may opportunistically recolonize areas when new habitats become available during glacial retreat. An understanding of this process is critical to the interpretation of the ichnological record of formerly glaciated regions, as environmental constraints placed strict controls on successional patterns in these environments.

2.1 Environmental Stress in Glacial Settings Physical environmental stress is predominant in glacial environments, and seasonal or episodic variations in physical processes can be extreme and abrupt. The impact of rapid environmental changes upon terrestrial and subaquatic freshwater fauna from glacial foreland environments is amplified relative to

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subaquatic fauna of brackish and full saline glaciomarine settings. Meltwater input during deglaciation reduces salinity in shallow-marine settings, resulting in conditions that favor opportunistic (r-selected) organisms. The endobenthic fauna shares the same characteristics as that commonly observed in other brackish-water settings. Temperature does not seem to play a role in constraining this opportunistic burrowing infauna. In addition, extreme meltwater discharge during deglaciation may result in the establishment of freshwater conditions in the innermost zones of fjords. The retreat and advance of valley glaciers and ice sheets impact the biota in different ways. During ice retreat, meltwater discharge rapidly inundates exposed, isostatically depressed areas in the glacier foreland, forming either shallow lakes and humid marginal substrates or deep valley lakes, depending on topography, as well as outwash plains. Shallow aquatic habitats quickly develop microbial mats, attracting organisms from surrounding biotic oases. However, the low humidity and high evaporation rates, typical of glacial climates in polar regions, and the relative aridity of glacial settings in temperate zones of lower latitudes, significantly reduce the water table following meltwater discharges, making the shallower lakes ephemeral and exposing littoral zones of perennial lakes (see Netto et al., 2009 for further discussion). Extensive mats formed by shallow microbial communities are exposed during these dry periods, but the leather-like structure of the mat surface retains moisture for a longer period (Noffke, 2010), preserving the colony and providing a source of food to terrestrial mat grazers and decomposers (generally “myriapods”, after Kaufmann, 2001). During winter periods, the available area for epigean communities is reduced significantly, as water surfaces freeze, reducing food, light, and oxygen supply to benthic communities. Thus, life conditions are tightly linked with physical glacial processes, and opportunistic taxa tend to be the most successful as they are able to migrate quickly to and from refugia. In fjords, the freshwater discharge, the sedimentation rate, the water turbidity, the oxygen content, the substrate, and the storm activity each play a role in controlling the distribution of benthic organisms (Buatois and Ma´ngano, 2011). A high rate of sedimentation typifies the fjord environment and is a result of high fluvial input, mass transport, eolian transport, and input from wave and tidal erosion (Syvitski et al., 1987). High sedimentation rates strongly affect the epifauna and limit bioturbation in the innermost zone of the fjord. In addition, fjord waters contain high concentrations of fine-grained particles that preclude establishment of suspension feeders (Feder and Matheke, 1980). As a result, fjord sediments tend to be bioturbated preferentially in the outermost zones, which are dominated by horizontal feeding traces of deposit and detritus feeders; vertical burrows of suspension feeders are typically absent. The concentration of dissolved oxygen in fjord bottom waters is highly variable (Syvitski et al., 1987). The bottom of some fjords, particularly those in enclosed basins, may be characterized by oxygen depletion. Because the redox boundary is very close to the sediment/water interface, shallow-tier structures of small

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deposit feeders tend to dominate. Under anoxic conditions, bioturbation is suppressed. In other cases, turbidity currents and hyperpycnal flows may supply oxygen to the fjord floor, resulting in intense postevent bioturbation (e.g., Schatz et al., 2011b). The degree of substrate consolidation may be highly variable in fjords (e.g., Schatz et al., 2011a). Muddy soupgrounds are rather common close to the glacier margin, limiting colonization by epifaunal organisms (Eyles et al., 1992). Softground communities with more diverse epifauna and infauna tend to occur distally, while the proximal fluid muds appear to be unbioturbated (Buatois and Ma´ngano, 2011), although this may be due to the low preservation potential of biogenic structures. Firmground suites tend to be associated with current-winnowed substrates (Eyles et al., 1992). Finally, many fjords are subjected to intense wave action, resulting in a deeply emplaced storm-wave base and repeated storms impart a strong influence on benthic communities in relatively deep water (Buatois and Ma´ngano, 2011; Syvitski et al., 1987).

2.2 Postglacial Colonization of Terrestrial Environments Studies concerning the faunal primary succession in deglaciated terrestrial areas are scarce. Kaufmann (2001) analyzed the terrestrial invertebrate succession in an alpine glacier foreland during the summer–fall period based on the epigean fauna. Despite the fact that the area in front of the glacier had been ice-free for the past 9500 years, the disturbed surface of the outwash plain is much younger. Colonization of the outwash surface began in sunny, stabilized areas and communities from within outwash plains were younger than those from terminal moraine slopes with developed soils. Predators were the first colonizers, while herbivores and decomposers appeared later. Recolonization of the glacier foreland occurred comparatively faster than in other barren environments (e.g., newly emerged islands), and can be compared with recolonization of volcanic deposits, where a mobile and tolerant invertebrate fauna migrates from adjacent areas to explore and establish breeding populations in newly deposited material (Kaufmann, 2001). The terrestrial invertebrate fauna was composed chiefly of arthropods, mainly insects (e.g., ants, flies, beetles), arachnids (e.g., spiders), and “myriapods” (centipedes and millipedes; Kaufmann, 2001). Carnivores, like carabeid and staphylinid beetles, and lycopsid and linyphiid spiders were the pioneer species, and despite of the initial lack of vegetation, rhizophagous elaterid beetles were also present. Myriapods colonized later, when communities became established. Centipedes (Chilopoda) appeared first, with the herbivorous beetles and detritivorous millipedes (Diplopoda) appearing later. Lumbricidae were scarce in the glacier foreland but common in adjacent grassland areas. Mobile flying insects, especially dipterans, were widespread in all areas, but dipteran larvae were absent in the youngest sites and in the outwash plain. According to Kaufmann (2001), the biomass produced in the glacier foreland was sufficient to sustain

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large populations, but there was no clear evidence that the communities were supported by local primary production or that resources were provided by eolian input. The presence of collembolans suggested that algae could be the base of the web food, but no infaunal invertebrates were detected in soils. Considering the pattern of succession, Kaufmann (2001) concluded that decomposers, like dipteran larvae and millipedes, might have facilitated ecological succession where well-established communities existed. The presence of vegetation made no significant difference to the colonization pattern of pioneering invertebrates, which suggests a strong predatory or scavenging component to the pioneer assemblage and possible allogenic inputs.

2.3 Postglacial Colonization of Freshwater Environments Biodiversity in glacial lakes and streams is low compared with typical temperate and tropical freshwater environments. Biodiversity increases from deep to shallow lakes and from upstream to downstream settings (Likens, 2010). Fishes, when present, are the dominant predator of the glaciolacustrine ecosystem, while the primary benthic community is composed chiefly of worm-like organisms (e.g., oligochaetes, nematodes, rotifers, nematomorphs, and insect larvae), crustaceans, diminutive molluscs, bacteria, algae, and a few aquatic vascular plants (in photic zones). As only cold-adapted or cold-tolerant species can inhabit these settings, productivity is low and food webs are simple (Likens, 2010). Glacial lakes are typically oligotrophic to ultraoligotrophic, and the development of a pioneer community cannot always depend on planktonic primary producers due to large amounts of suspended glacial rock flour and low nutrient density. In some arctic lacustrine food webs, the benthos is the primary source of organic carbon (Sierszen et al., 2003). Despite low productivity, benthic organisms provide other animals, such as predators, access to environments otherwise too harsh to occupy. For those glacial freshwater environments linked to the coastline by river systems, offshore freshwater refugia located on exposed continental shelves can play a role in successful recolonization. In addition to terrestrial freshwater habitats, coastal-marine areas may have been available to freshwater fish as glacial meltwaters altered ocean water salinity nearshore (Power, 2002). Power (2002) postulated that during postglacial extensions of fish ranges, proglacial lakes would have been uninhabitable and were too much covered by ice during most of the year. Using Arctic rivers as analogs for what fish may have encountered during range extension (high sediment loads, unstable bed conditions, and frequent meltwater flooding), Powers (2002) argued that proglacial conditions would have been difficult to overcome for migrating fish. These extreme conditions would have required the ability to exploit a wide range of niches, as primary productivity would have been much reduced. In one study of a recently (within the past 40 years) deglaciated area in Alaska, it was found

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that, despite initial instability of flow and stream channel morphology, the watershed was already heavily colonized by salmonids and even the slimy sculpin, Cottus cognatus (Milner and York, 2001). Upstream lake and kettle pond habitats provided the stable environments needed for reproduction and rearing. Dorava and Milner (2000) evaluated the role of lake regulation in enhancing downstream habitat for migratory species in the Cook Inlet watershed, Alaska. Glacial drainages downstream of lakes had enhanced productivity for a number of reasons: (1) lakes provide supplemental flow in winter and mitigate flood effects in summer, (2) lakes act as settling areas for excess sediment thereby keeping downstream gravel habitat free of fines, (3) lakes act as stable deepwater environments for young salmon, and (4) lakes warm water to suitable temperatures for habitation (5–15
C). Upstream of lakes, close to glacial margins, habitats were considered too unstable for colonization to take place (Dorava and Milner, 2000).

2.4 Glacial and Postglacial Colonization of Marine Environments The impact of meltwater discharge in modern fjord benthic invertebrate communities was analyzed by Fetzer et al. (2002), and it was revealed that the total abundance of individuals increased with distance from the fjord head, while diversity was highest close to the glacier. Opportunistic and juvenile depositfeeding polychaetes were the most abundant taxa, followed by bivalves and crustaceans. However, Fetzer et al. (2002) observed that the abundance of young crustaceans rapidly decreased toward the fjord mouth, possibly in response to stronger bottom currents. Juvenile suspension-feeding bivalves were less disturbed by meltwater discharge but were more vulnerable to currents close to the glacier. Thus, a concentration of burrows made by polychaetes and crustaceans is expected in shallow glaciomarine settings, while bivalve burrows might be common in deeper zones. This is consistent with the fossil record in glaciomarine settings, which shows dominance of burrows attributed to polychaetes and arthropods and scarce occurrences of bivalve biogenic structures (see Supplementary Table 2 in http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780444538130). Fetzer et al. (2002) also concluded that hydrographic factors mainly are responsible for the benthic community distribution in shallow glaciomarine settings, while grain size and related properties may play a more important role in deeper zones. Goldring et al. (2004, 2007) summarized work in the climatic control of Cenozoic to Pleistocene marine trace-fossil distribution. While that work did not directly address glacial depositional systems, trends in trace-fossil distribution from cold to warm climates were observed that allowed the recognition of an “Arctic” trace-fossil zone in which annelids and molluscs were the main bioturbators, with an absence of spatangoid burrows and crustacean-related burrows, such as Thalassinoides and Ophiomorpha.

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3. TRACE-FOSSIL ASSEMBLAGES FROM ANCIENT GLACIAL ENVIRONMENTS 3.1 Bioturbated Deposits in Glacial Settings Diamictites and rhythmites (e.g., varves) are the most characteristic and dominant modes of sedimentation in past glacial environments (e.g., Donovan and Pickerill, 2007; Eyles, 1993; Eyles and Eyles, 1992; Jensen and Wulff-Pedersen, 1996; Thunell et al., 1995). These deposits are directly related to glaciers, which deliver a large volume of sediment to marine and terrestrial/lacustrine basins, forming glacioterrestrial and glaciomarine systems tracts (Eyles and Eyles, 1992). The glacioterrestrial realm is composed of subglacial, supraglacial, glaciolacustrine, and glaciofluvial depositional systems, which are mainly expressed in low-relief glacioterrestrial settings. Glaciomarine settings may be dominated by glacial processes (ice proximal) or marine processes (ice distal). The influence of meltwater input in glaciomarine settings depends on the regional climate regime and controls chemical and biogenic processes. Most glacial deposits in low-relief glaciomarine settings are concentrated on continental shelves, the ice-proximal zone bearing the coarse-grained facies and the fine-grained facies deposited in the ice-distal zone. Fjords characterize the high-relief glaciomarine settings, where the ice-proximal deposits remain on the continental slope and the ice-distal deposits extend to the basin as turbidites (Eyles and Eyles, 1992). Stratigraphic discontinuities are common, as erosion plays an important role in these systems. Laminated rhythmites are associated with glaciolacustrine deposits and shallow tide-dominated and prodeltaic glaciomarine deposits (e.g., Brodzikowski and van Loon, 1991; Domack, 1984; Mackiewicz et al., 1984; Powell, 1981, 1983; Smith et al., 1990). Millimeter- to centimeter-scale depositional layers, that represent annual cycles known as varves, are the best-known glacigenic rhythmites. However, rhythmites formed in glacially influenced environments do not necessarily represent annual seasonality, but rather result from recurrent episodic meltwater discharge events that form distal turbidite deposits in distinct settings (e.g., Brodzikowski and van Loon, 1991; Eyles and Eyles, 1992; Talbot and Allen, 1996). Trace fossils in ancient glacial deposits have been recorded chiefly in finegrained rhythmic deposits and, more rarely, in massive mudstones. They represent colonization after ice retreat, possibly in response to meltwater pulses, being well preserved in regular, varve-like rhythmites from the Upper Carboniferous–Lower Permian of Gondwana and Northern Hemisphere Pleistocene glacial deposits. They represent the bulk of the known glacial trace-fossil record. The Late Paleozoic Gondwana Ice Age is well represented in the sedimentary record of Bolivia, in the Andean basins of Argentina (Tarija, CalingastaUspallata, and Paganzo Basins), in Brazil (Parana´ Basin), in South Africa (Karoo Basin), and also in Antarctica and Australia (see Buatois et al., 2006,

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2010 and references therein). Most trace-fossil assemblages occur within postglacial facies and have been recorded in Brazilian, South African, and Argentinian Basins (see references in Supplementary Tables 1 and 2 in http://booksite. elsevier.com/9780444538130), which represent deposition in coastal lakes and fjords that opened toward a shallow sea. The Quaternary Ice Age sedimentary record is well exposed in the Northern Hemisphere, with sedimentary facies similar to those recorded from rocks of the Late Paleozoic Gondwana Ice Age. The preservation of Quaternary rhythmites is extensive and they provide geological evidence that support the interpretation of a seasonal (winter–summer) control of depositional cycles. Trace fossils from Quaternary glacigenic deposits have been recorded chiefly in varved glaciolacustrine sediments from the northern hemisphere, in Austria, Canada, England, Finland, Germany, Lithuania, Poland, Sweden, and the USA (see Uchman et al., 2008, 2009 and references therein; Benner et al., 2008, 2009; Fliri et al., 1970; Knecht et al., 2009). Despite occurring in disparate time periods, glacial trace-fossil assemblages share some characteristics. The same overall trace-fossil composition has been recorded in glaciolacustrine (or closely related settings strongly influenced by freshwater due to meltwater discharge) deposits of both ages (see Supplementary Table 1 in http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780444538130). Typically these deposits are dominated by horizontal biogenic structures including arthropod trackways, trails, furrows, and resting traces; fish swimming trails; and regularly sinuous to randomly meandering tiny shallow burrows produced by worm-like animals. Glaciolacustrine trace-fossil assemblages occur almost exclusively within and on bedding planes, show a relatively low ichnodiversity, high abundance, and patchy distribution (Uchman et al., 2008, 2009). Aquatic and terrestrial suites may occur on the same bedding plane in palimpsest-type preservation, the latter generally superimposing the former, suggesting a diminished water table and community succession (Netto et al., 2009). Despite the significant mammal body fossils from the Cenozoic to early Holocene, their tracks and trackways have not been recorded from glaciogenic deposits until the present day (Martin, 2009).

3.2 Glaciolacustrine Trace-Fossil Assemblages The pattern of biogenic structures observed on the bedding planes of ancient iceproximal glaciolacustrine deposits, the common presence of fish swimming trails, and the patchy distribution of trace fossils, are consistent with the opportunistic colonization pattern observed in modern glaciolacustrine settings. Interestingly, modern pioneer invertebrate communities had the same small-scale spatial heterogeneity and strong correlation with environmental conditions as the older, established sites; a fact that may explain the observed similarity of freshwater invertebrate trace-fossil assemblages across different ages and basins (see Supplementary Table 1 in http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780444538130) and references therein. The freshwater trace-fossil assemblages recorded in both Late Paleozoic Gondwana and Quaternary varve-like rhythmites are characterized by the

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presence of two pervasive ichnocoenoses, one dominated by arthropod trackways, and another by non-specialized trails and shallow horizontal burrows, well preserved in broad, shallow glacial basins. The arthropod trackway-dominated ichnocoenosis is the most common in the fossil record, being attributed to the activity of merostomes, isopod crustaceans, and apterygote insects (Fig. 1). A third ichnocoenosis, dominated by fish trace fossils, is well preserved in deep, narrow Pleistocene glacial lake basins (see Supplementary Table 1 in http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780444538130). In glacial Gondwana deposits, trackways include ichnospecies of Maculichna, Umfolozia, and Protichnites (the last being less common; Fig. 1A–C), but Kouphichnium isp. and Orchesteropus atavus (Fig. 1D and G) also occur in the Falkland and Paganzo basins, respectively, as well as Broomichnium permianum (formerly Quadrispinichnia parvia; see Benner et al., 2008 for further discussion) in the Karoo Basin (see Supplementary Table 1 in http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780444538130). Crustacean resting traces are more rare, being represented by Gluckstadtella cooperi in the Parana´ and Karoo basins (Fig. 1E and F), and by Kingella natalensis, exclusive to the Karoo Basin until now. Insect resting traces are represented by Tonganoxichnus isp. (Fig. 1I), recorded in the Parana´ Basin. A particular suite composed exclusively of myriapod trackways (Diplichnites gouldi) and trails (Diplopodichnus biformis) also occurs in the Parana´ Basin (Fig. 1A, H, and J), being the most conspicuous trace-fossil assemblage in thin-bedded rhythmites of the Parana´ Basin (Balistieri et al., 2002, 2003; Buatois et al., 2006, 2010; Nogueira and Netto, 2001; see Netto et al., 2009 for further discussion). Bilobate trace fossils, such as Cruziana and Rusophycus, may be locally dominant (Schatz et al., 2011a). The Pleistocene glacial trackway assemblage includes Glaciichnium liebegastensis and Warvichnium ulbrichi as dominant ichnotaxa, but Steinsfjordichnus isp., Lusatichnium slavensis, Irichnus isp., and other arthropod trackways also occur (see Uchman et al., 2008, 2009 and references therein; Supplementary Table 1 in http:// booksite.elsevier.com/9780444538130; Fig. 2). The non-specialized trails and shallow burrows ichnocoenosis is composed chiefly of Cochlichnus, Gordia, Helminthoidichnites, and Mermia (¼Gordia carickensis in Pleistocene records) ichnospecies in both Late Paleozoic Gondwana and Quaternary ice-age deposits (Supplementary Table 1 in http://book site.elsevier.com/9780444538130). This ichnocoenosis seems have been more diverse in the Gondwana record, in which Helminthopsis and slightly deepertier burrows of deposit feeders (Hormosiroidea meandrica, Treptichnus pollardi, Treptichnus isp., Planolites isp.) and, very rarely, suspension feeders (Palaeophycus isp.) also occur (Supplementary Table 1 in http://booksite. elsevier.com/9780444538130; Fig. 3A, D–F, I, and J). Accessory components, including arthropod locomotion (Cruziana problematica, Glaciichnium isp.), and resting traces (Rusophycus isp., R. carbonarius), molluscan-type trails and burrows (Archaeonassa and Didymaulichnus, the latter which can also be produced by arthropods, Lockeia and Protovirgularia ichnospecies), non-specialized vertical burrows (Arenicolites isp., Diplocraterion isp., Skolithos isp.), and fish trails (Undichna isp.), have also been described in Late Paleozoic

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FIGURE 1 Trace fossils from Late Carboniferous–Early Permian terrestrial and lacustrine glacigenic deposits of Gondwanaland basins. (A) Maculichna varia (Mv), cross-cut by Diplichnites gouldi (Dg). (B) Umfolozia sinuosa (Us). (C) Protichnites isp. (D) Kouphichnium isp. (E) and (F) Gluckstadtella cooperi. (G) Orchesteropus atavus. (H) Diplopodichnus biformis. (I) Tonganoxichnus isp. (J) Diplichnites gouldi. All specimens occur in the Itarare´ Group thin-bedded rhythmites (Parana´ Basin, southern Brazil) except (G), which comes from the Guadancol Formation (Paganzo Basin, north-western Argentina). Specimens (C) and (F) are preserved as negative epireliefs, whereas all other specimens are preserved as positive hyporeliefs. Scale bars ¼ 10 mm.

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FIGURE 2 Some trace fossils from Pleistocene varved lacustrine sections south of Kaunas, Lithuania. (A) Three different Cochlichnus anguineus (Co) and Gordia (¼Mermia) carickensis (Gc); Ppr-2-31 (lower parting surface), Pasˇamine˙ section. (B) Glaciichnium liebegastensis (Gl) and Helminthoidichnites isp. (He); Ppr-13-14, Pasˇamine˙ section. (C) Gordia carickensis, Balbierisˇkis section. (D) Gordia isp., Balbierisˇkis section. (E) Warvichnium ulbrichi (Wa) and Glaciichnium liebegastensis (Gl); Ppr-2-41, Pasˇamine˙ section. Scale bars ¼ 10 mm, except in (C) (¼5 mm).

Gondwana varve-like rhythmites (Supplementary Table 1 in http://booksite. elsevier.com/9780444538130; Fig. 3B, C, G, H, and K–M). This ichnofauna occurs exclusively on parting surfaces of most rhythmite laminae, including microlaminae of proximal varves. The bioturbated varves, that compose the European Pleistocene glacigenic deposits, reflect events during the summer and on the transitions to clay laminae interpreted as winter laminae. The colonization surfaces are only 0.1–0.3 mm thick and the trace fossils are less common in silt microlaminae within clay (winter) laminae, suggesting that the tracemakers were active mostly during summers and transitional periods. Cryptic bioturbation, marked by reorientation of clay-mineral flakes, is noted in some varved sediment (O’Brien and Pietraszek-Matter, 1998). Preservation potential was highest when the tracemaker moved on or through the thin silt couplet. However, trace fossils are not always present in such situations. Intervals with increased abundance and diversity of trace fossils may reflect warming during interstadials and retreating ice cover (Netto et al., 2009; Uchman et al., 2008). Trace fossils produced by vertebrates and invertebrates also occur in the Pleistocene varved sediments of the Connecticut and Merrimack valleys (USA; Benner et al., 2008, 2009; Knecht et al., 2009), revealing a general pattern of benthic ecosystem development in deep, narrow glacial lake basins (Table 1). The assemblage is dominated by fish trace fossils represented by Broomichnium flirii, Piscichnus isp., Undichna bina, U. britannica, U. simplicitas, U. unisulca, and other piscine trace fossils. Cochlichnus isp. is the only

FIGURE 3 Trace fossils from Late Carboniferous–Early Permian lacustrine and marginal-marine glacigenic deposits of Gondwanaland basins. All specimens occur in the Itarare´ Group thin-bedded rhythmites (Parana´ Basin, southern Brazil) except (H), which comes from the Agua Colorada Formation (Paganzo Basin, north-western Argentina). (A) Cochlichnus anguineus (Ca) and Hormosiroidea meandrica (Hm). (B) Cruziana problematica. (C) Rusophycus cf. carbonarius. (D) Treptichnus pollardi. (E) Nereites isp. (Ne) and Helminthopsis isp. (Ht). (F) Helminthoidichnites tenuis. (G) Glaciichnium isp. (H) Undichna insolentia. (I) Gordia (¼Mermia) carickensis. (J) Gordia marina. (K) Lockeia siliquaria. (L) and (M) Protovirgularia isp. Specimens (E), (I), and (M) are preserved as negative epireliefs, whereas all other specimens are preserved as positive hyporeliefs. Scale bars ¼ 10 mm.

6100–6200

5938–5960

5930–6100

5130–5220

MER-1

WAL

CB

South RR

3586

3820

5130

5930

5938

6100

6124

6980

7134

7320

d

5141

?

5967

6168

6209

7022

7478

7350

unisulca

Undichna

d

5219

5939

bina

d

5938

6124

7281

>7350

7352

britannica

d

7027

7362

simplicitas

d

7359

7360

7352

Broomichnium flirii

d

>7500

>7500

7530

Arthropod trace fossils

d

7610

Piscichnus isp.

First occurrence of each reported as the New England Varve Chronology (NEVC; Ridge, 2003, 2004) varve year in which it was found or a reference to the oldest varve year from which it could have been taken (>, ). Cells have been shaded with color according to the ecological stage; the assemblage represents blue, stage 1; green, stage 2; yellow, stage 3; red, stage 4. See text for explanation.

3586–3660

6150–6210

MER-2

CHIC

6980–7765

NEW

3820–4150

7134–7607

WR-1

KF-C

7320–7763

Varves

North PAS-2

Site

Cochlichnus isp.

TABLE 1 Summary of First Occurrences for Each lchnospecies or Unnamed Type from Connecticut River Valley, USA Varves

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representative of the non-specialized trails and shallow burrows ichnocoenosis, while Surculichnus bifurcauda and other arthropod trace fossils compose the arthropod trackway-dominated ichnocoenosis (see Supplementary Table 1 in http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780444538130).

3.3 Ichnocoenoses and Ichnofacies of Glaciolacustrine Rhythmites The general structure of the trace-fossil assemblage and the ichnotaxa recorded in the varve-like rhythmite deposits formed by deglaciation during Gondwana and Holarctic-Antarctic ice ages are consistent with those of freshwater ichnofacies. The study developed by Uchman et al. (2008, 2009) in the Lithuanian varves reveals that the lateral distribution of trace fossils is patchy and can change from abundant to absent at distances of 15–20 m without any difference in lithology (Fig. 4). The denser patches may have developed around more nutritionally dense locales (Uchman et al., 2009). The tracemakers moved intensively within a patch or rarely between the patches (cf. Koy and Plotnick, 2007). Densely looping trails can point to activity within highly nutritional patches, whereas less tightly looping to winding forms (transitions to Helminthoidichnites) can indicate activity within less nutritional areas or searches for a new patch. A change in trace-fossil composition at adjacent levels may reflect changes in the activity of particular tracemakers. Cochlichnus and Glaciichnium commonly occur alone, but rarely together. Probably, tracemakers of Glaciichnium (Asellus or a similar isopod crustacean) and Cochlichnus (dipteran larvae or nematodes) were the most successful in the Quaternary, being opportunistic colonizers of new substrates under stressing environmental conditions (Uchman et al., 2008). The lacustrine varve chronology of Pleistocene glacial Lake Hitchcock (Connecticut Valley, USA) spans >4000 varve years (see Ridge, 2003, 2004 and references therein) and was recently recalibrated (J. Ridge, personal communication, 2010). The vertical distribution of its trace-fossil content allowed Benner et al. (2009) to reconstruct the biotic occupation history of the deep glacial lakes. The initial occupation stage of the lake bottom is represented by a Cochlichnus assemblage preserved in oldest varves, closest to receding ice and nearest underlying till. Cochlichnus isp. (Fig. 5) in two forms is present in the first varves overlying till at all localities in which till can be located, indicating the pioneering life habit of the causative organism(s). Stage 2 is identified by the presence of the fish-produced trace fossil, Undichna (Fig. 5H), in addition to Cochlichnus. Stage 2 assemblages persist for circa 1.7 ka, after which a new benthic fish-produced trace fossil, Broomichnium flirii (Fig. 5G; see Benner et al., 2008), and a variety of arthropod-produced trace fossils (Fig. 5B–E) including Surculichnus bifurcauda (Fig. 5A; see Knecht et al., 2009) are added, producing a Stage 3 assemblage. The shift from a depauperate Stage 2 to a Stage 3 assemblage, rich in arthropod trace fossils and having a higher diversity of fish trace

FIGURE 4 Vertical distribution of trace fossils in varved clays of the Late Pleistocene Girininkai and the Pasˇamine˙ sections, south of Kaunas, Lithuania.

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FIGURE 5 Simplified drawings based on actual specimens of trace fossils from Connecticut River valley (USA) varves. (A) Surculichnus bifurcauda in epirelief. Gray area is negative relief; hatched area is positive relief. (B) Unknown arthropod trace fossil (UATF) 4 in epirelief. Gray area is negative relief; hatched area is positive relief. (C) UATF 3 in positive hyporelief (cast). (D) UATF 2 in positive hyporelief (cast). (E) UATF 1 in positive hyporelief (cast). (F) Undichna unisulca. (G) Five morphotypes of Broomichnium flirii. (H) Three morphotypes of Undichna britannica. (I) Two morphotypes of Undichna simplicitas. (J) Undichna bina. Scale bars in (A), (D), (G–J¼ 2 cm); (B, C, and E ¼ 1 cm); (F¼ 10 cm). See Benner et al. (2009) for detailed explanations and interpretations of each trace fossil.

fossils, is coincident with a sedimentologically corroborated shift from mostly glacial input to the lake to mostly non-glacial inputs (Benner et al., 2009). The last identified stage in the succession, Stage 4 (NEVC year 7610;  13.51 ka BP), coincides with a sedimentological shift to higher percentages of sand deposition, probably indicating shallower lake environments as water levels dropped or as the basin filled. These contain an abundance of fish breeding pits, Piscichnus, in addition to arthropod and other fish-produced trace fossils. The apparent lack of small invertebrate traces (i.e., Cochlichnus) in Stage 4 varves may be a result of taphonomic factors (poor preservation in sand) rather than actual abundance of the tracemaker. It is possible that the rate of stage transition (succession) increased as time passed in the valley after a significant reservoir of organisms ready to inhabit newly exposed water ways had accumulated in icefree areas. Close observation of species assemblages in modern late-stage glaciated valley lakes may help to elucidate these processes.

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Trace-fossil diversity rarely exceeds three ichnotaxa within individual laminae in ice-distal or ice-proximal varves, especially in the Quaternary deposits. Uchman et al. (2009) found that trace-fossil diversity in a Lithuanian varve sequence was slightly higher in more ice-proximal varves (five ichnogenera) compared with that of ice-distal varves (three ichnogenera) (Fig. 4). Benner et al. (2009) found the opposite—that ichnogeneric diversity increased as varves became more ice distal (Table 1) and contained a higher percentage of non-glacial sediment input. In fact, trace fossils probably made by adult arthropod crustaceans were not present until non-glacial inputs were the majority of sediment delivered to the basin (Knecht et al., 2009). The different conclusions of the two studies may be a result of variable preservation and/or lack of bedding-plane exposure in soft, clay-rich ice-distal varves, or extreme patchiness in the Lithuanian varve record. Walter (1985) and Walter and Suhr (1998) proposed a model of trace-fossil distribution in a proglacial lake. They distinguished three communities: the repichnia ichnocoenosis with atypically "stretched" Cochlichnus (Heftstich type) within sandy varves from the epilimnion of a deltaic environment; the cursichnia ichnocoenosis (renamed as the Glaciichnium ichnocoenosis by Uchman et al., 2008) with arthropod trackways Glaciichnium, Warvichnium, and Lusatichnium, typical of proximal varves within the metalimnion; and the Cochlichnus ichnocoenosis with common, regular Cochlichnus and rare small trace fossils, as well as grazing traces, such as Gordia and Helminthoidichnites, typical of more distal varves within the hypolimnion. Decreasing oxygen content from the epilimnion to the hypolimnion was considered to be the controlling factor in trace-fossil distribution. The bathymetric control in this model was questioned by Uchman et al. (2008, 2009), because trace fossils of different zones predicted by the model occur within adjacent laminae in intervals that represent short periods of time (Fig. 4). This fact led Uchman et al. (2008, 2009) to suppose that rather than oxygenation, food density or other factors controlled the ichnocoenosis instead of water depth. Further, Benner et al. (2009) noted that a Cochlichnus ichnocoenosis occurs in the first varves deposited over till, indicating a most ice-proximal position and potentially shallow water depths. The arthropod-dominated trace-fossil ichnocoenosis recorded in Gondwanan glacial rhythmites was interpreted by Balistieri (2003) and Netto et al. (2009) as representative of activity in shallow and marginal littoral zones of lakes and proximal areas flanking fjord valleys during climatic amelioration periods that follow deglaciation cycles. These authors assumed that this ichnocoenosis represents an atypical occurrence of the Scoyenia Ichnofacies, which always superimposes the non-specialized trail and shallow burrows ichnocoenosis (equivalent to the Cochlichnus ichnocoenosis from Pleistocene glacial deposits), representative of the Mermia Ichnofacies, in palimpsest preservation (Balistieri, 2003; Buatois et al., 2006, 2010; Netto et al., 2009). The abundance of sedimentary structures induced by the presence of microbial mats formed possibly by cyanobacteria in the Gondwanan bioturbated rhythmites also

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FIGURE 6 Trace fossils from Late Carboniferous–Early Permian glaciomarine deposits of Gondwanaland basins. Specimens in (A) to (F) occur in the Itarare´ Group massive siltstones (Parana´ Basin, south Brazil), which characterizes firmgrounds. (A) Palaeophycus striatus. (B) Palaeophycus tubularis. (C) Gyrolithes-like burrows. (D) Rhizocorallium isp. (dashed lines representing the inferred U-shaped burrow end). (E) and (J) Diplocraterion isp. (F) Thalassinoides isp. (G) Chondrites isp. (H) Phycosiphon isp. (I) Thalassinoides-Planolites-Palaeophycus-Teichichnus composite ichnofabric. Specimens in (G) to (J) occur in fine-grained heterolithic deposits of San Gregorio Formation (North Uruguayan Basin, (G) and (H)), and Rio do Sul Formation (Itarare´ Group, Parana´ Basin, southern Brazil). All specimens preserved in full relief. Scale bars ¼ 10 mm.

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supports the shallow condition of these ancient glacial lakes (Netto et al., 2009; Noffke, 2010). This model was compared by Netto et al. (2009) with modern postglacial landscapes in Alaska and Antarctica and reinforced by the common occurrence of freshwater ponds and lakes that develop in shallow depressions excavated by ice-mass movements in marginal-marine plains in high-latitude settings (Horne and Goldman, 1994). Several of these lakes overlie permafrost, which melts out during summer, promoting lake drainage. According to Talbot and Allen (1996), cool glacial conditions in polar regions create arid conditions and low lake levels in high-latitude temperate settings. Lake-level changes are controlled dominantly by climate oscillation, which controls the hydrologic budget. Thus, in shallow lakes, reduction of water input and concomitant increases in water loss may reduce the water level, giving rise to wetlands, or cause them to dry up entirely. Thus, rather than a distinctive “glacial ichnofacies”, ichnofaunas from glacial and periglacial settings characterize particular suites of the Mermia Ichnofacies. Suites of Scoyenia Ichnofacies, dominated by arthropod trackways (typical of margins of closed lakes, Buatois and Ma´ngano, 2004), also occur, being well documented in the Gondwana record (Buatois et al., 2010; Netto et al., 2009; Fig. 7).

3.4 Glaciomarine Trace-Fossil Assemblages The ichnofauna of shallow glaciomarine Gondwanaland is preserved in fine- to very fine-grained sandstones and siltstones with flaser and wavy bedding; is mainly composed of ?Arenicolites, Chondrites, Diplocraterion, Palaeophycus, Phycosiphon, Planolites, Rhizocorallium, and Thalassinoides (see Supplementary Table 2 in http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780444538130; Fig. 6G–J); and is well represented in the Rio do Sul (Parana´ Basin) and San Gregorio (North Uruguayan Basin) Formations (Balistieri, 2003; Buatois et al., 2006, 2010). Massive siltstones locally contain sharply bounded burrows (Thalassinoides isp., Diplocraterion isp., Palaeophycus isp., P. striatus, ?Rhizocorallium isp., and Gyrolithes-like burrows; Fig. 6A–F) representative of the Glossifungites Ichnofacies (Balistieri and Netto, 2002), suggesting transgressive erosional exhumation and firmground colonization in fjord valley flanks. Glaciomarine trace fossils are small if compared with equivalent ichnofaunas from normal-marine settings, and comprise nonspecialized feeding burrows produced by trophic generalists. The overall structure and composition of the assemblage are consistent with impoverished Cruziana Ichnofacies suites normally found in brackish-water settings (e.g., Buatois et al., 2005). Dropstones and diamictites with faceted clasts occur throughout most of the succession and thick deposits of fossiliferous marine shales record periods of maximum flooding in the Gondwanaland glacial environment. The most diverse marine ichnofauna reported in glacially influenced Gondwanaland deposits is preserved in lower shoreface storm sediments from the Talchir Formation in central and eastern India (Bhattacharya and

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Bhattacharya, 2007; Sarkar et al., 2009; see Supplementary Table 2 in http:// booksite.elsevier.com/9780444538130). Despite high ichnodiversity, the trace fossils are sporadically distributed, and the overall small size of the burrows, the absence of body fossils, and the dominance of worms as tracemakers suggest brackish-water conditions, probably due to influx of glacial meltwater during climatic amelioration (e.g., Fielding et al., 2006; Virtasalo et al., 2006). Deep glaciomarine bioturbated deposits have been reported only from the Cenozoic record, both in offshore and deep turbidite deposits. Phymatoderma, Thalassinoides, ?Nereites, and Planolites were reported by Uchman and Gaz´dzicki (2010) in offshore and deeper-water deposits of the Early Miocene Cape Melville Formation (King George Island, Antarctica), while a more diverse assemblage composed of Arenicolites, Chondrites, Diplocraterion, Ophiomorpha, Rhizocorallium, Thalassinoides, and Zoophycos had been reported in the deep-water active-margin turbidites and debris-flow deposits and prograding continental slope mass-flow deposits from the Late Miocene Yakataga Formation (Gulf of Alaska; Armentrout, 1979; Eyles et al., 1992; see Supplementary Table 2 in http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780444538130). Shallow-marine deposits are also present in the Yataga Formation, accumulated in a broad shelf with a high sedimentation rate (including abundant coarse ice-raft debris), but the Skolithos Ichnofacies is absent due to the predominance of unstable, muddy substrates (Eyles et al., 1992). Trace fossils from the Yataga Formation were grouped in nine assemblages that were referred to particular depositional settings and types of substrate in submarine channel, slope, shelf boulder pavement, coquina, storm sands, and shelf postglacial muds. Schatz et al. (2011b) analyzed biogenic structures in Holocene cores from three fjords (Maktak, Coronation, and North Pangnirtung) of Baffin Island (Arctic Canada), comparing this information with photos taken from bottom camera stations. The abundance and diversity of biogenic structures was controlled by the proximity to the ice, physical disturbances (e.g., turbidity flows), and ice drift. Sediments have been extremely reworked, especially further away from the fjord head. Polychaete borings also occur in Quaternary glaciomarine environments. Caulostrepsis and Maeandropolydora were recorded in early Holocene marine terrace boulders of NE Spitsbergen by Hanken et al. (2012). Earlier, Aitken and Risk (1988) presented borings in Pleistocene-recent shells and limestone clasts from the Arctic Canada. Research on microbioerosion along the Swedish coast (e.g., Wisshak and Ru¨ggeberg, 2006; Wisshak et al., 2005) suggested that some ichnotaxa (e.g., Flagrichnus baiulus) occur only in non-tropical settings (Wisshak and Porter, 2006).

3.5 Ichnocoenoses and Ichnofacies of Glaciomarine Rhythmites Trace fossils reported from tidally influenced and shallow, wave-dominated to deep glaciomarine settings generally compose suites representative of the Cruziana and (to a lesser degree) Glossifungites Ichnofacies (see Supplementary

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FIGURE 7 General trace-fossil distribution in glacial environments. Ar: Arenicolites; Co: Cochlichnus; Ch: Chondrites; Cn: Conichnus; Di: Diplichnites; Dc: Diplocraterion; Dp: Diplopodichnus; Dt: Diopatrichnus; Ga: Gastrochaenolites; Go: Gordia; Me: Mermia; Pa: Palaeophycus; Pl: Planolites; Rh: Rhizocorallium; Sk: Skolithos; Si: Siphonichnus; Te: Teichichnus; Th: Thalassinoides; Un: Undichna. After Buatois and Ma´ngano (2011).

Table 2 in http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780444538130 for ichnotaxa and references; Fig. 7). They generally show a low degree of bioturbation, impoverished diversity, and diminutive size, when compared with ichnofaunas from normalsaline environments. These features are typical of brackish-water ichnofaunas (e.g., Buatois et al., 2005). However, the presence of truly marine, deep-water ichnogenera (e.g., Phymatoderma, Zoophycos) suggest the establishment of the archetypical Cruziana Ichnofacies in deep-water settings, impoverished due to lowered salinity owing to dilution by glacial meltwaters. The occurrence of the Cruziana Ichnofacies in turbidites, instead of the expected Nereites Ichnofacies, can be explained by the downslope transport of food by turbiditic currents and mass flows (Eyles et al., 1992).

4. ICHNOLOGY OF RECENT GLACIAL ENVIRONMENTS Little ichnological research has been performed in modern glacial environments, all of them concentrated in the Arctic regions. The record of bioturbation in glaciolacustrine and terrestrial environments includes chironomid traces from sediments of a Norwegian lake in contact with ice (Duck and McManus, 1984), vertebrate and invertebrate traces of a fluvial pointbar in northern Alaska compared to Treptichnus, Cochlichnus, Archaeonassa (Aulichnites in Martin, 2009), and Helminthoidichnites (Martin, 2009), and a low-diversity Palaeophycusdominated trace-fossil assemblage with rare Arenicolites from postglacial

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lacustrine settings in the Archipelago Sea (northern Baltic Sea), which is replaced by a higher diversity brackish-water assemblage with Arenicolites, Lockeia, Planolites, and Teichichnus, a consequence of marine incursions (Virtasalo et al., 2006). Burrowing faunas were also reported from glaciomarine settings, in tidal flats of Baffin Island in Arctic Canada (Aitken et al., 1988) and among soupground, softground, and firmground communities of the subtidal and intertidal zones of the Arctic Canada fjords (Dale et al., 1989). These faunas include the anemone Cerianthus; the polychaetes Nereis pelagicus, Polydora quadrilobata, Pholoe minuta, and Arenicola marina; the bivalves Portlandia arctica, Hiatella arctica, Macoma balthica, and Mya truncata; and the priapulid worm Priapulus caudatus (Dale et al., 1989). Onuphid polychaete traces associated with gravel-sized dropstones, irregular echinoid furrows, probable burrows of the shrimp Axius, and burrowing anemones, compose the biogenic sedimentary structures observed in the substrate of the Baffin Island Fjord (Syvitski et al., 1989).

5. CONCLUDING REMARKS AND PERSPECTIVES The available data on trace fossils from glacial environments, initially thought to be fossil-poor, have provided more information about the inhabitants of ancient glacial settings than expected. The combination of high sedimentation rates on episodic or annual bases with well-constrained fossil occurrence data has provided a high-quality glaciolacustrine and shallow glaciomarine tracefossil record. Terrestrial and glaciolacustrine ichnofaunas are dominated by arthropod trackways and shallow horizontal burrows made by worm-like organisms, characterizing Mermia, Scoyenia, or mixed Scoyenia-Mermia ichnofacies assemblages. Glaciomarine ichnofaunas from fjords are highly impacted by meltwater discharge. As a consequence, freshwater conditions prevail in some fjord settings during deglaciation, allowing for the establishment of suites ascribed to these ichnofacies. Under brackish-water conditions, suites illustrate the impoverished Cruziana Ichnofacies. The Skolithos Ichnofacies is typically suppressed, most likely due to water turbidity. Extreme environmental conditions dominate in glacial environments, constraining biota diversity and abundance. Amelioration of these conditions during interstadial or interglacial stages may be the most important controlling factor in the establishment of biotic communities, which rapidly occupy newly formed and available habitats, as evidenced by trace fossils within the earliest varves of proglacial lakes. A number of factors control reinhabitation of formerly glaciated valleys by organisms previously confined to refugia during glacial intervals. The dominance of horizontal burrows might be a response to permafrost conditions, constraining the biological activity only in the superficial layers of the substrate. The timing of reinhabitation of aquatic environments, however, depends first upon the presence of

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inhabitable water ways. For pioneering aquatic organisms that can withstand harsh environmental conditions including perennial ice, low water temperatures, high turbidity, and dissolved solids, only topographic barriers, in the form of spillways, stand in the way. Paleobiogeographical and paleoecological inferences using bedding-plane trace fossils are tenuous and require identification of tracemakers—a challenge given that the tracemakers are not deep infauna and do not produce trace fossils characteristic of their particular trophic position or of their anatomy with regularity. Because of the abundance of well-preserved bedding-plane trace fossils within the Quaternary glacial rhythmites and the ability to utilize records of modern species occurrences as a starting point, identification in some cases has been more than speculative. Comparisons can be made between the assemblages of the Late Paleozoic glacial strata and those of Cenozoic deposits. The replacement of merostome and myriapod trace fossils of the Paleozoic trace-fossil assemblages by subaquatic crustaceans in the Cenozoic glaciolacustrine deposits is probably a consequence of evolution, as most merostome arthropods were extinct at the end of the Paleozoic. However, ichnofacies relationships and ecological niche occupation remain similar between the old and the young deposits, which are an indication of the constancy of biotic reaction to glacial events through time.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The research summarized in this chapter was supported by the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq grants 479457/2007-7, 503487/ 2007-4, 305208/2010-1, and 401826/2010-4 to R. G. N.), Tufts University Faculty (Research Award to J. S. B. and J. C. R.), National Science Foundation (Award 0639830 to J. C. R.), Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) (Discovery Grants 31172705/08 to M. G. M. and 311726-05/08 to L. A. B.), Jagillonian University (DS funds to A. U.). The critical reviews made by J. Isbell, H. Walter, and P. Suhr were capital to improve this chapter.

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