Environmental Consequences And Potential Trans-Border Conflict Between Nigeria And Cameroon Resulting From Damming Of River Benue At Lagdo, Northern Cameroon

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Environmental Consequences And Potential Trans-Border Conflict Between Nigeria

D. A. Umar Department of Environmental Science, Federal

And Cameroon Resulting

University, Dutse

A. I. Tukur

From Damming Of River Benue At Lagdo, Northern Cameroon

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Department of Geography, Kano University of Science and Technology, Wudil

A. Mustapha Department of Geography, Kano University of Science and Technology, Wudil

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ABSTRACT This paper examined the environmental consequences in Adamawa State and conflict generating potentials between Nigeria and Cameroon resulting from the damming of River Benue at Lagdo Northern Cameroon by the republic of Cameroon. The data for the paper is derived from field work and content analysis of literature review. The field techniques adopted include the actual measurements of relevant variables, general observations, questionnaires administration, use of aerial photographs and some existing topographic maps of the study area. Two types of data sets, the pre-dam ecology of the flood plain in the study area and post dam environmental changes were collected and tested in order to measure the strength of these effects. The results show that the Lagdo Dam has created some environmental problems in the downstream flood plains of the Benue in Nigeria which include inadequate and irregular discharge of River Benue, channel erosion and excessive flooding of the Benue floodplains as a result of unregulated discharges from the Lagdo Reservoir as it happened in 2012. The problems created by the dam in Nigeria have great potentials for trans-boundary conflict between the two countries. At present there have not been open trans-boundary clashes, but complaints are mounting concerning the problems. This study recommends refocusing on negotiation and treaties by the Co-riparian states, shifting away from navigations and boundary demarcations towards joint uses, development, and conservation of water resources that are commonly owned by the co-riparian states. Keywords: Trans-Boundary, Water Resource, Conflicts, Nigeria, Cameroon

1.0 INTRODUCTION Fresh water has been accredited to be the most widely shared resources and the most vital for human survival after oxygen. It has the capacity to unite people and states or nations that share a source of water- like rivers, lakes or basin and to incite conflict among them as they compete for it, especially when its environmental impacts are most felt at the downstream areas where such river is being developed at its upstream areas (Wolf 1999, Gleick 2006, Matthews 2012, Gleick and Heberger 2014).It is clear that environmental impact assessment at the feasibility pilot work of many dams and other related project in the developing tropical countries (Nigeria and Cameroon inclusive) is not undertaken, as it should (Olofin, 1988). Consequently, post implementation evaluations unfold undesirable environmental consequences. It is also widely recognized that dams constructed on the rivers of Africa for hydroelectric power generation, irrigation or flood control have had a number of significant environmental impacts on the downstream flood plain areas of such rivers, particularly through the effect of reduced and delayed flood flows on ecology, hydrology and agriculture (Jones and Hollier 1997, Matthews 2012). Such impacts are documented in the literature and were assessed by some African researchers and mostly research students (e.g Olofin, 1986, Ibrahim, 2006) in the Nigerian rivers. Such consequences are becoming evident in Africa as large proportion

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of most major African rivers are subjected to river controls through damming (Falkenmark 1989, Chao 1995, Yoffe, Wolf et al. 2003, Halliru 2012) At the time Lagdo dam was proposed to be constructed, little or no attention was given to the international nature of River Benue as a shared trans-boundary natural resource in line with the Helsinki Rules on the uses of the water of international rivers, and International Law Association (1966) and its principles of which Cameroon and Nigeria are members. Although various authorities have worked on dams and their effects on ecology, hydrology, environment and or socio-economic activities (irrigation and fishing), but the conflict generation potential of unilateral damming and how it can be averted has not been fully assessed. There has been phenomenal increase in international rivers regulation worldwide in recent years due to unilateral decisions usually reached by upstream nations to dam international shared Trans-boundary Rivers without any treaty or agreement between the co-riparian States. The consequences of such act in the presence of international Rules on the management of trans-boundary Rivers, and the world’s exponential population increase that increases demand for international water in the regions of the world, has necessitates a research of this nature. (Bunn and Arthington 2002, Falkenmark 2004). Despite much works that were done in determining the possibility of an international water conflict in the world and Africa in particular, sufficient attention has not been paid on trans-boundary Rivers and the possible environmental problems of such acts considered and how to alleviate them. Thus ,the purpose of this study is to investigate the environmental effects of Logdo dam on its downstream settlements (in Nigeria ) and to identify the potential areas of international water conflict as they affect the downstream environment with the aim of proffering solutions on how the conflict can be averted.

2.0 STUDY AREA 2.1 LOCATION The study area covers the whole floodable valley of River Benue within Adamawa State covering an area of approximately 9,420 km2 with the total population of 1,004,890 in 118 villages. The river with a total length of 192.5km and a width of 9.72km in the state, enters Nigeria at the confluence of Rivers Faro and Benue near Kocciel village in Fufore Local Government Area of Adamawa State on approximately, latitude 9o 20’N and longitude 11o 33’E, making that administrative region the immediate victim of the damming effects in Nigeria.. It is worth noting here that the Benue get narrower at its entrance into Nigerian territory, and gets wider around Demsa Local Government in Adamawa state downwards and wider as it gets into Taraba State Nigeria.

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The River Benue is an internationally shared water body that originated from the Mbakana Mountains and the Mandara mountains inside Cameroon and passes through Nigeria traversing the States of Adamawa, Taraba and Benue before it was captured by the River Niger in Lokoja almost at the Centre of Nigeria. The resultant volume of water and loads of the two rivers are then discharged into the Atlantic Ocean via the Delta area. The Benue Valley from the Nigeria-Cameroon border to the confluence where the River Benue meets the River Niger is a strip of land about 26,112 square kilometers (George, 2006). Adamawa State falls within this strip of land at about 4,500km (about 11% of the strip total area), within the basin territory. The total basin area that is in Adamawa State is 9,420 Km2 crisscrossing seven local government area of the state: Demsa, Fufore, Gerei, Lamurde, Numan, Yola North, and Yola South affecting about 1,004,890 persons dwelling along the Benue River bank. Several attempts have been made to develop general rules of international law which guide the civilized sharing of water in trans-boundary settings whose principles generally hinge on the notions of equality, reasonableness, and avoidance of harming ones neighbor.

Figure 2: The Position of Lagdo Dam in the Benue Watershed Area

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2.2 CLIMATE The climatic conditions are generally similar to those of the vast savanna. It has tropical climate with welldefined seasons with the rainy seasons, from April to October with a total rainfall of about 950mm, and a dry season, from November to march with an approximate rainfall of 1000mm. The average annual temperature is 28 C with the minimum and maximum temperatures varying respectively from 16 o C in December, to 33o C in April. The soils are generally depositional with alluvial clay on the flood plain while the river bed is made of sand. The settlement pattern in the study area is basically lineal along the River Benue and is predominantly rural except very recently with the emergence of some of them as Local Governments Headquarters and Jimeta as the State Headquarter. The major economic activity is agricultural with hardly any industry except for Savannah Sugar Company and Afcott which are large scale agro-allied companies in the area (Adelalu 2012, Gleick 2014) However, in spite of these historical records of agreements; Cameroon Republic started a unilateral construction of Lagdo Dam with the assistance of the Japanese Government in the 1980s without the consent of Nigeria, a co-riparian nation on the downstream of the River Benue.

3.0 RESEARCH METHODS 3.1 TYPES OF DATA The specific data required for this study include land area of the River Benue valley inside Adamawa State as an administrative entity. The total number of persons that settled in the area, the number of flood disasters recorded in the study area since 1982-2005, estimate of losses incurred since the construction of Lagdo dam; the availability of water in the study area today compared to 1981 (a year to the closure of the dam’s valves), and the effect of the existing tension in the Benue valley as a result of seasonal flooding due to the dam’s effects (from 1982-.2005). Also investigated is the availability of water in the Benue valley before the dam and after the dam as well as the context for disputes on the use of the resources in the Benue valley before the dam. 3.2 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION The field techniques adopted include the actual measurements of relevant variables, general observations, questionnaires administration, use of aerial photographs and some existing topographic maps of the study area. As the study is aimed at establishing the Environmental effects of Lagdo dam on the downstream environment of the River Benue in Adamawa state as a potential cause of international water conflict, two types of data sets, the pre and post dam were collected and tested in order to come up with the strength of these effects. Hence, the following data sets were collected. Post environmental changes that crop up on the flood plains of Adamawa State after the dam and the ecology of natural floodplain before the dam construction were assessed.

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3.3 SAMPLING PROCEDURE AND SAMPLE SIZE The stratified sampling technique was adopted for the study because of the large sample number of those to be consulted on the pre-dam construction information and is still present in the villages after the dam construction to date. The population living in the Benue valley in Adamawa State Nigeria put at 1,004,890 in 118 villages in the study area. Those within the age of 38-85 years and above whose total stood at 719,712 and are the target population that knows the environmental situation before and after the dam’s construction at Lagdo. Hence, the stratified random sampling technique was adopted here for the distribution of questionnaire and the interview at an interval of 1-150 among the strata of the target population in the study area. The most concerned indices measured in the case of Lagdo Dam as the most needed data in this case are the seasonal flow data, quality of water at pre and the post-dam periods along the River Benue’s downstream area. 3.4 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS The time series (Analysis of Trend Technique) which deals with data behavior in the past, and has the ability to give value to variables under consideration at various points in time is the most adoptable statistical technique used in the analysis of seasonal flow of the River Benue and its downstream area. The technique’s versatility in the analysis of large data and its ability in the analysis of very marked seasonal fluctuation in figures made it paramount to be adopted for analyzing the seasonal flows of River Benue being a natural resource that is being affected by residual or random influences that cannot be foreseen or pinpointed without a great deal of outside knowledge.

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 RIVER EROSION AND SILTATION PROBLEM The flora and fauna were adversely affected as Lagdo dam has been holding back the sediments of the River especially the heavy gravels and pebbles that have been the habitats of some of the environmental organisms (such as insects, malloses and crustaceans) that survived well in the river floor, using these heavy gravels and pebbles for habitats. Any river that is deprived of its sediment loads, seeks to recapture it by eroding its downstream channel and banks, under mining bridges and other river bank structures. Same damages are well noticed in extend for hundreds of kilometers below Lagdo dam more especially within the vicinity of the dam’s downstream area in Adamawa State. Materials carried into the River Benue within the state by its tributary streams were usually deposited on some parts of the riverbed that were somewhat unusual places as the river flow volume has been reduced by ¾ or even less of its natural status that it does no longer has the flow strength to transports its loads. The consequences of this is the resultant silting of the river channel at some points that it can be crossed on foot

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even in the middle of the rainy season. The deepening of the River Benue valley as a result of riverbed erosion and the complete dryness of the river in the dry season and early months of the raining season has direct effects on the groundwater table-level along the River Benue, threatening the general vegetation growth, the local wells and above all, the lowering or drying up of the shallow aquifer lying under the River in the floodplain regions forcing the riverine communities into crop water in places where there was previously no need for irrigation. Changes in the physical habitat and hydrology of the River Benue as a result of its regulation by Lagdo Dam have implicated about 93% of fresh water fauna decline in the riverine area of Adamawa State (Fieldwork, 2001). Before the construction of Lagdo Dam, the Benue River used to carry a lot of sediments to the Sea annually, depositing nearly thousands of tons on the floodplains before it reaches the Niger at Lokoja. Today, almost all of these sediments are trapped behind the dam instead of reaching where it was to be a source of fertility at the downstream of the dam. The construction of Lagdo Dam has also led to serious river bank erosion; example of this problem is noticed along the confluence of River Gongola, Kilange, Chauchi, Mayo Inne etc.

Plate 1. River erosion at some part of River Benue (Source: Author’s Field Work, 2013) Studies by Dynesius and Nilsson (1994) on the general effects of dammed rivers, established that “dams disconnect rivers from their floodplains and wet lands and reduce the speed at which water flow physically, impacting on the migratory pattern of fish and flood riparian habitats, and on features such as water falls, rapids, riverbanks, and wetlands” (Dynesius and Nilsson 1994, Adelalu 2012, Clarke 2013) These effects have been found to be very true as the construction of Lagdo dam has impacted exactly same on its downstream area in Adamawa state disconnecting the Benue River with its floodplains, its wet lands and the downstream ponds and lakes. These effects were felt when the four sluices of Lagdo dam were closed in 1982, to fill its reservoir, the discharge of the River Benue at the downstream area dropped to 43% of the average flow of the river despite the fact that 1982 was one of the wettest year (Field work 2001).

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The physically observed flood duration since the time Lagdo dam was commissioned in 1982 to date has been reduced to an average of 3-15 days only when compared to the pre-dam normal flood duration of 93-160 days annually, giving the vivid picture of the colossal environmental losses Lagdo has inflected into the state’s environment for the past 23 years of its establishment on the River Benue. 4.2 CHANGES IN FLOW REGIME Field findings revealed that since 1982 when the four sluices of Lagdo dam were closed in Garoua, Northern Cameroon, the general flow of water in the River Benue were changed, dropping to 35% of the normal seasonal river flow. These changes in river flow also have their consequence on the ecosystem depending on the activities in the floodplains. Hydropower installations and irrigation needs of a dam like Lagdo often give rise to peak discharged in which there are rapid rise and fall in discharges on daily, weekly or seasonal basis. For many aquatic organisms, the rapid rates of changes in discharges are often more deleterious than the high discharge itself in their life cycle since normalcy in these discharge rates determines their sprawling and regeneration processes. These risings and falls in discharges confuse some aquatic organisms which depend on normal discharge period of the River Benue for their reproduction, leading to the depopulation of the aquatic organisms in the downstream area of the dam. 4.3 CHANGES IN WATER TEMPERATURE Changes in water temperature are one of the causes of responses to sensitivity and resilience in some aquatic organisms in a river system. Many organisms depend on such changes to receive certain environmental signals for successfully completion of their life cycle. For instance, some species of fish required a certain water temperature change to initiate sprawling, while some other aquatic insects may be triggered to emerge by certain temperature changes in water impounded by dam. These adverse changes are all noticed along the downstream of the Benue River as a result of the river's low flow in the downstream riverbed that is associated with high water temperatures in the Adamawa state environment. 4.4 CHANGES IN DOWNSTREAM WATER QUALITY Effects on river temperature, nutrient load, turbidity, dissolved gases, concentration of heavy metals and minerals are some of the hydrological effects of regulating a river and its natural flow. These effects are generally related to how long the water has remained in the reservoir. Particularly, severe effects can occur when a reservoir is first formed and submerged vegetation and other material decomposes, as it does so, it will deplete oxygen in the reservoir water. This deoxygenated water can be lethal to the aquatics in the dam’s reservoir and on the other aquatics in the downstream area of the dam-they are released to flow through. The muddy appearance of river Benue at the downstream area is an evidence of water quality changes and this affects biodiversity of river Benue and crop yield in the adjacent flood plain areas.

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4.5 CHANGES IN FLOOD PATTERN Lagdo dam has been delaying, reducing and altering the flood patterns of River Benue in its downstream area since the construction of the dam. The delay between any flood events has a corresponding negative effect on the dam’s downstream environment and on the aquatic organisms that are dependent on these natural cycles. The closure of the dam’s sluices has also affected and injected confusion to flood plain farmers as their ability to match expected flooding with agricultural needs by timing the flood recession period was completely lost. This confusion led them to the abandonment of floodplain cultivation. This abandonment of flood plain cultivation is an economic blow on the downstream communities living along the River Benue in Adamawa State.

Plate 2: Flood event in Adamawa caused by the release of water from Lagdo reservoir in 2012 ((Source: Author’s Field Work, 2012) 4.6 DISCHARGE CHARACTERISTICS Before the construction of Lagdo dam around 1978/79, the discharges of the River Benue at Yola were 2,463m3/sec and 188m3/sec in rainy and dry season respectively. However, around 1982/83 after the construction of Lagdo dam, the average discharge of River Benue at Wurobokki, Jimeta and Lau were 1,130m3/sec in rainy season and 117m3/sec in the dry season confirming the sudden closure of the dam’s sluices as it is in that same year the dam became operational. In 1984, the discharge was further reduced to a bare 305m3/sec and 65m3/sec in rainy and dry season respectively. In some instances the discharge has fallen to zero, to such an extent that one can cross the river with a bare foot.

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discharge in m3/sc

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9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0

years discharge

1 3 5 7 9 11131517192123252729313335 years from 1970 to 2005

Figure 3.Discharge characteristics of River Benue in Adamawa (1970 2005). After George, 2006

5.0 POTENTIALS FOR TRANS-BORDER CONFLICTS It is generally observed and agreed that disputes and conflict potential over sharing water resources usually arises between one or more countries. The conflict is not limited only between countries, but also among the state, province and regions within the same geographical location. Consequently, tribal unrest, induced migration, and declining economic stability will be the major problem at the downstream area of the receiving state/country where trans-boundary water sharing conflict arise caused by freshwater inadequacy and or scarcity. Potential trans-border water sharing conflict between Nigeria and Cameroon can be viewed from three dimensions as follows: 5.1 POTENTIAL CONFLICT RESULTING FROM LAGDO DAM CONSTRUCTION The present situation in Adamawa state characterized with a bitter experience of severe water shortage from the river in dry season of the year resulting from damming River Benue has a potential power to cause the downstream inhabitants particularly farmers to embark on conflict and violence against the local authority. A similar conflict as occurred in Bangladesh such as massive rallies, protest meetings, strikes and other forms of protest against the dam is believed to unfold soon in the Adamawa state with a mighty dimension that cannot be imagined. . 5.2 POTENTIAL CONFLICT RESULTING FROM SOCIO-ECONOMIC DECLINE Aesthetic water availability is important, in addition to human consumption, but also to economic and social development of any society. Indeed, ancient civilization history is believed to be connected with water availability. The reversal situation has a potential consequence by destroying countries’ economy, food security, social and livelihood of the society thereby leading to social unrest, ethnic, racial and societal conflict. Interview with the famers utilizing water from the river in the downstream area revealed that, a threat

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of acute water flow of river Benue during the dry season of the year is their major concern. This in turns can lead them to embark on serious violence against concerned government. The long term consequences of this threat are the undermining of government itself leading to social and economic collapse of the Adamawa state in particular and the entire nation at large. These in turn, can fuel conflict between the two countries in question. 5.3 POTENTIAL CONFLICT FROM ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE The undesirable discharge of water from Lagdo dam and its resulting fluctuation of river Benue in form of flood and dryness during rainy and dry season respectively, make Adamawa flood plain areas vulnerable to flood and drought that not only devastate lives and livelihoods but also damage ecological condition of the areas resulting in gully erosion, river siltation problem, flood plain quality devastation and biodiversity damage. This ecological threat of Adamawa flood plain area is enough to trigger farmers utilizing the inland valley for crop cultivation and livestock rearing, to embark on violent conflict. Every year, some part of the Adamawa flood plain area is usually in the grip of a devastating drought or in the fury of a flood and has for long gone unnoticed by the Government.

6.0 CONCLUSION Based on the preliminary findings of this research, one can conclude that the construction of Lagdo Dam at Garoua, in the Republic of Cameroon has been the human factor rather than the natural factors (residual or random influences) that is responsible for the decrease in the discharge of the River Benue, whose environmental impacts are being felt in the downstream area of the river by both people and the ecosystem that depend on the river and its floodplains in Adamawa State and some parts of Nigeria, and this is capable of inciting conflict between the two nations To ameliorate the effects of Lagdo Dam on the downstream environment in Nigeria, the principle of “manage flood” should be adopted to reduce the resultant cumulative loss of natural resources, habitat, water quality, environmental sustainability and ecosystem integrity. On the other hand, the River Benue water resources could be jointly managed under a cooperative framework as stipulated by the United Nations where the present uses of the river being put by Cameroon will be revisited and analyzed, some of which could be adopted or approved while some could be dropped in the interest of co-riparian neighbourhoodness, and for the unitary utilization of this natural gift two these nations-the River Benue. Designers and operators of

dam projects in the regions often seem unaware of

the most

obvious

environmental consequences and there is clear need for management to recognize the indirect as well as the direct effectss. A reliable database, including meteorological, hydrological, and socioeconomic data, will serve as a fundamental tool for sustainable management of water resources between Nigeria and Cameroon.

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7.0 REFERENCES Adams, W. M. (1985). "The downstream impacts of dam construction: a case study from Nigeria." Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers: 292-302. Bunn, S. E. and A. H. Arthington (2002). "Basic principles and ecological consequences of altered flow regimes for aquatic biodiversity." Environmental management 30(4): 492-507. Chao, B. F. (1995). "Anthropogenic impact on global geodynamics due to reservoir water impoundment." Geophysical Research Letters 22(24): 35293532. Clarke, R. (2013). Water: the international crisis, Routledge. Dynesius, M. and C. Nilsson (1994). "Fragmentation and flow regulation of river systems in the northern third of the world." SCIENCE-NEW YORK THEN WASHINGTON-: 753-753. Falkenmark, M. (1989). "The massive water scarcity now threatening Africa: why isn't it being addressed?" Ambio: 112-118. Falkenmark, M. (1989). "Middle East hydropolitics: water scarcity and conflicts in the Middle East." Ambio: 350-352. Falkenmark, M. (1997). "Meeting water requirements of an expanding world population." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 352(1356): 929-936. Falkenmark, M. (2004). "Towards integrated catchment management: opening the paradigm locks between hydrology, ecology and policy‐making." International Journal of Water Resources Development 20(3): 275-281. Giordano, M. F., MA Giordano, AT Wolf (2005). "International resource conflict and mitigation." Journal of Peace Research 42(1): 47-65. Gleick, P. H. (2003). "Global freshwater resources: soft-path solutions for the 21st century." Science 302(5650): 1524-1528. Gleick, P. H. (2003). "Water use." Annual review of environment and resources 28(1): 275-314. Gleick, P. H. (2006). "Water and terrorism." Water policy 8(6): 481-503. Gleick, P. H. (2014). The World's Water Volume 8: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources, Island Press. Gleick, P. H. and M. Heberger (2014). Water conflict chronology. The world’s water, Springer: 173-219. Halliru, S. L. (2012). Climate Change and Rural Water Supply Planning in Nigeria. Climate Change and the Sustainable Use of Water Resources, Springer: 305-315. Ibrahim, I.M (2006), Impact of Tiga Dam on River Wudil Flow Regime, Unpublished B.Sc Thesis, Department of Geography, Kano University of Science and Technology, Wudil, Nigeria. Jones, G. and G. Hollier (1997). Resources, society and environmental management, Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd. Kunstmann, H., W Kinzelbach (2002). "Conditional first‐order second‐moment method and its application to the quantification of uncertainty in groundwater modeling." Water Resources Research 38(4): 6-1-6-14. Matthews, M. (2012). "Volta Convention: An Effective Tool for Transboundary Water Resou;rce Management in an Era of Impending Climate Change and Devastating Natural Disasters, The." Denv. J. Int'l L. & Pol'y 41: 273. Medzini, A. and A. T. Wolf (2004). "Towards a Middle East at peace: hidden issues in Arab–Israeli hydropolitics." International Journal of Water Resources Development 20(2): 193-204. Pringle, C., G Vellidis, F Heliotis, D Bandacu (1993). "Environmental problems of the Danube Delta." American Scientist 81(4): 350-350. Olofin, E.A (1988), Short Communications Monitoring the Impact of Dams on the Downstream Physical Environment in the Tropics Regulated Rivers: Research and Management, vol. 2, 167-174 (1988) Olofin, E.A (1986), A Proposal for Monitoring the Impact of Dams on the Physical Environment in the Tropics. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Nigerian Geographical Association, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Samson, P. R. and B. Charrier (1997). International freshwater conflict: issues and prevention strategies, Green Cross International Geneva. Wolf, A. T. (1999). “Water Wars” and Water Reality: Conflict and Cooperation Along International Waterways. Environmental change, adaptation, and security, Springer: 251-265. Wolf, A. T. (2004). Regional water cooperation as confidence building: water management as a strategy for peace, Citeseer. Yoffe, S., AT Wolf, M Giordano. (2003). Conflict and cooperation over international freshwater resources: indicators of basins at RISR1, Wiley Online Library.

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