English Language ‘Education’ or ‘Industry’? Bridging Parallel Discourses in Canada - 2015

Tsushima, R., & Guardado, M. (2015). English language ‘education’ or ‘industry’? Bridging parallel discourses in Canada. In L. T. Wong & A. Dubey-Jhaveri (Eds.), English language education in a global world: Practices, issues and challenges (pp. 239-250). Hauppauge, New York: Nova Science Publishers. Pre-publication version (April. 16, 2015). The final publication is available at https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=55727

Chapter 22 ENGLISH LANGUAGE ‘EDUCATION’ OR ‘INDUSTRY’? BRIDGING PARALLEL DISCOURSES IN CANADA Rika Tsushima and Martin Guardado McGill University and University of Alberta ABSTRACT In the context of a global trend towards the internationalisation of higher education, a growing number of public educational institutions and private providers are offering English language education programmes for international students in Canada. In response to rapidly declining government funding, higher education institutions are intensifying their international student recruitment efforts as well as expanding their English language offerings. At the same time, the Canadian government is increasingly framing international education as a key to its future prosperity and targeting international students as potential immigrants upon graduation. This state of affairs generates discursive tensions and provides the conditions for the creation and mobilisation of a variety of somewhat parallel discourses (business, academic, political) that do not always engage in mutual dialogue and collaboration. In this chapter, we describe the contextual realities in this regard and engage with some of the key areas of contention. We argue, for instance, that all of these views need to engage in productive conversation and work in a complementary manner. We take the position that stakeholders on all sides of this common endeavour need to work synergistically in order to address the needs and goals of students in an ethical and academically sound manner while striving to achieve the goals of the institutions that attract them. Keywords: international students, internationalisation, higher education, English language education, ESL, ELT, discourses, academic capitalism, commodification, immigration, Canada INTRODUCTION There is a critical debate within academic circles today about the growing trend towards the commodification of education at all levels (Giroux & Myrsiades, 2001; Guardado, 2012; Lewis, 2008; Naidoo & Jamieson, 2005). As part of this conversation,

English language teaching (ELT) is increasingly being recognised as a major source of economic revenue for English speaking countries (Anchimbe, 2006). The number of educational institutions offering English language programmes for international students has experienced rapid global growth in the past few years. Depending on the needs of the target learner population, ELT programmes are designed and provided in different forms by a wide range of organisations such as local-level public schools, post-secondary institutions, private education services providers, and other organisations. In concert with the phenomenon of English as an academic lingua franca (Mauranen, Hynninen, & Ranta, 2010), universities in English speaking countries are operating entrepreneurial activities in this area more than ever before. Canada is not an exception and is in fact one of the leaders in this expanding ELT market, and as a result, it has become increasingly important to gain a better understanding of the complexities of the language education industry. Nevertheless, in academic discourses of English as a second language (ESL) education, issues related to the administration, marketing, recruitment, and promotion side of language education tend to be downplayed due to their relatively indirect influence on everyday classroom practices. Language education scholars sometimes view this type of discourse as a form of sell-out and thus as distasteful and even unethical. Despite a number of legitimate concerns surrounding the increasing corporatisation of ELT at Canadian universities, this way of thinking, we argue, is antiquated, unrealistic and impractical. It is a hindrance to the development of the best possible experiences for international students. ELT programme managers, marketers and recruiters, on the other hand, may see the academic discourse as unnecessarily cautious, complicated, and even a barrier to recruitment. We contend that both of these views are simplistic and counterproductive. Indeed, with the abundance of literature on the role of ELT programmes to promote the internationalisation of higher education (e.g., Harman, 2004), many critical pedagogues and other scholars argue that it is time to generate a more active discussion of what some of them term ‘academic capitalism’ (Slaughter & Leslie, 1997) and ‘edubusiness’ (Luke, 2010) in the field of English language education. Inspired by these critical perspectives on the rapidly changing climate of ELT worldwide, the present chapter aims to help stimulate dialogue between the business and academic communities by highlighting some of the rationale and unique ways in which Canada is developing its own path and plan for attracting international students. This plan is being undertaken through various initiatives to strategically brand ‘Canadian education’ (Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada, 2014) (hereafter DFAIT) and thus enhance its appeal in the context of an increasingly competitive academic, business and immigration enterprise. In this chapter we take the position that stakeholders on both sides of this common endeavour need to work synergistically in order to address the needs and goals of students in an ethical and academically sound manner while striving to achieve the goals of the institutions that attract them.

INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION AS PART OF CANADA’S POLITICAL AGENDA Recognising the valuable contribution of international students to the broader society, Canada has been promoting supportive attitudes towards international education (see, for example, Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2012) (hereafter CIC). In fact, Harper’s government recently proclaimed that it aims to double the number of international students in post-secondary education by 2022, raising it to 450,000. This is part of the government’s announcement to launch its comprehensive International Education Strategy (Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada, 2014, January 15). This strategy builds on at least two key reports: Annual Report to Parliament on Immigration (Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2012) and International Education: A Key Driver to Canada’s Future Prosperity (Advisory Panel on Canada’s International Education Strategy, 2012). Both of these documents contain discourses that strongly encourage the federal government to strengthen its international education strategy and aggressively pursue the recruitment of international students. Specifically addressing these points, the Annual Report to Parliament on Immigration states: International students bring with them new ideas and cultures that enrich the learning environment within Canadian educational institutions. International students are well prepared for the Canadian labour market and integrate more quickly into Canadian society since they have Canadian educational credentials and have spent several years interacting with Canadian students in their postsecondary institutions. (Citizenship and Immigration Canada, 2012, p. 21) In this example of current official discourse, Canada recognises that the presence of international students on university campuses enriches society at large in many ways. While underscoring the benefits of cultural diversity and internationalisation that they bring into Canadian classrooms, the statement illustrates Canada’s perspectives on international students as ideal immigrants. This point is particularly relevant in cases where international students remain in Canada upon their university graduation and join the workforce. In a sense, extending this argument, education in Canada is being employed as an immigration strategy – as a cultural and linguistic Canadianisation process – to prepare international students for the Canadian job market. In addition, this multi-goal agenda suggests that Canada not only prepares and then attracts new Canadians through education, but also reveals that these international students are already making a major economic contribution to the country. For instance, another recent report prepared for DFAIT (Roslyn Kunin & Associates, 2012) (hereafter RKA), Economic Impact of International Education in Canada - An Update, revealed that international students contributed more than $8 billion to the Canadian economy in 2010, up from $6.5 billion in 2008. Furthermore, the international education services that Canada provides to China, South Korea, and Saudi Arabia – which constitute the top source countries for international students – make up more than 10% of Canada’s total

exports to these countries. Given that these data unquestionably suggest that international education is contributing to the Canadian economy in such a substantial manner, there should be no doubt about the potential contribution that ELT education can make in the Canadian context – financially, socially, culturally and in other ways – through a concerted national effort. THE ELT INDUSTRY IN CANADA Owing to the widespread belief that a high proficiency in academic English is one of the essential keys to success in higher education (Andrade, 2006; Zeegers, 2004), most universities in English speaking countries and elsewhere now offer English for academic purposes (EAP) courses, not only to students aspiring to enter degree programmes, but also to students already in these programmes. Canadian universities are certainly no exception to this trend. Prior to entering their degree programmes, many arriving international ESL students enroll in intensive programmes such as these and some students concurrently take EAP courses during their actual academic studies. In this chapter, we refer to these students as international ESL students to differentiate them from domestic francophone ESL students and international students from Anglophone countries. Leading the internationalisation of higher education, Canada has been attracting many international ESL students who seek a Canadian degree as well as those who aspire to improve their English language skills and to obtain an intercultural experience through short-term programmes. The document, Economic Impact of International Education in Canada - An Update (RKA, 2012), revealed an average of 7% international student growth per year between 2000 and 2010 and in some years, the growth was over 10%. Enrolment at the university level accounted for over half of the total number of international students in Canada at the end of the reported ten-year period. This DFAIT document also reports that according to a survey conducted in 2010 by Languages Canada, 1 whose membership consists of 154 institutions – a combination of private and public post-secondary non-credit language programmes – it is estimated that 136,906 students were registered in language training institutions in Canada (the data include both English and French). The data indicate that out of this number, at least 110,157 students (nearly 81%) were on short-term programmes of under six-months (the length of some programmes was not reported in detail) (RKA, 2012). Specifically in ELT, based on the Languages Canada data, the report shows the significant economic impact of short-term ESL students on the country. The report excluded students whose stay was over six months, but if accurate data on the entire ESL population were available, surely a much more significant economic effect would be revealed. Although this report does not include information about students enrolled in ELT programmes for over six months, the international students in these short-term languagelearning programmes reportedly contributed about $455 million in GDP, 10,780 jobs, and $48 million in government tax revenue, which, combined, constitutes a significant boost to the Canadian economy. Just to illustrate a segment of the industry contributing to the                                                                                                                           1  Languages

Canada is an organisation that represents Canada’s two official languages, English and French, and regulates the teaching of these languages in the public and private sector.  

current trend, we use some data from the English Language Program at the University of Alberta. This programme includes general English language courses for students who have not yet officially declared their intention to enter a degree programme and whose English language proficiency is still not high enough to apply. The programme also offers credit-bearing EAP courses for international students on an academic path. The majority of students in the EAP courses are in a Bridging Program designed to conditionally admit students who are academically strong, but whose English proficiency can benefit from further development. Students taking EAP courses as part of the Bridging Program already enjoy the institutional privileges of degree programme students. It is interesting to note that over the past four years, enrolment in the non-EAP language courses has experienced a decline of approximately 20% in total (close to 7% per year). By contrast, enrolment in the EAP Program has increased by 53% over the same period (an average of 17% growth per year). The trends in the English Language Program at the University of Alberta may be similar to those at other Canadian institutions. Evidently, there is growing interest in post-secondary education among international ESL students, a trend that aligns well with the policies of the Canadian government in support of the promising ELT industry in this country. It should be noted that while official documents have reported on the considerable economic impact of ESL students in Canada, comprehensive and accurate data on this sector is not available. Clearly, there are several key aspects of this economic activity that warrant further and more in-depth examination, such as the economic contribution of ESL students both long- and short-term (excluding French learners in Quebec, for increased analytic clarity), programme types, institutional characteristics, and demographic differences. BRANDING CANADA AS AN IDEAL DESTINATION FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS As mentioned above, the government has expressed a strong political commitment to branding Canadian education in order to boost the economy by increasing the number of highly-skilled, Canadian-trained workers. Across Canadian institutions, linguistic, cultural, and ethnic diversity are some of the common selling phrases used in marketing materials. By way of illustration, an ESL student from the University of Toronto offers the following testimonial: I looked at schools in several countries in my search for the best English program and settled on Canada because of its cultural diversity and friendliness to newcomers. (University of Toronto, 2014) In the literature, this country has been portrayed as a popular destination for international students to study the English language. Aside from multiculturalism, more practical reasons have been highlighted as motivations for coming to study in Canada. For example, Fryer (1996) and Takayama (2000) investigated the perspectives of Japanese ESL students in Metro Vancouver, a west-coast, metropolitan city in British Columbia, and reportedly the most common destination for Asian ESL students. Takayama described the popularity of the city for Japanese students as arising from its

safety, spectacular scenery, and more direct access to Japan. Lee and Wesche (2000) analysed Korean students’ main reasons for choosing Canada as a study destination, citing relatively low tuition fees and living costs compared to other countries. Similarly, Moon (2005) stated that appealing points of a Canadian study experience for Korean students are ‘a safe and secure environment in the schools, community, towns and cities, along with the availability of a relatively high quality of facility [sic] and programs in the educational institutions’ (p. 142). Even though the Canadian international education strategy already draws on some of these factors and research findings, it would do well to highlight understated factors, such as the high academic standards, and more affordable educational and living costs. More importantly, it is also clear that increasing funding and other support for a broader research agenda in this area of national importance should be a priority. Indeed, understanding the ‘push-pull factors’ that influence international students’ decisionmaking processes (Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002) could benefit from more comprehensive research across Canadian educational institutions, and particularly, in ELT programmes. This research, no doubt, would better guide post-secondary institutions in their efforts to attract international students to their campuses, as well as better inform the federal government of adjustments needed in their international education policies and thus, better leverage its brand to more effectively attract international students. As well, more explicit discussion of the terminological – and ideological – commonalities and distinctions between attracting and retaining students as ‘learners’ and as fee-paying ‘customers’ would help engage in a more open and productive dialogue among stakeholders. EXPANDING THE ELT INDUSTRY The ELT ‘industry’ discourse has emerged – or at least intensified – in the last decade and a half. However, there is currently a rapid movement worldwide to expand this sector as an industry and further consolidate it within university campuses. This process of consolidation is occurring through the development of ‘foundation’ and ‘pathways’ programmes and the establishment of international colleges. Post-secondary institutions have pursued this endeavour in the past decade through at least two emerging models: partnering with private providers or establishing their own entities, both of which offer international ESL students a mixture of credit and English language courses. In Canada, as well as elsewhere in the world, this is taking place in the context of parallel forces and interests affecting higher education. For instance, Canadian higher education institutions have traditionally been heavily subsidised by operating grants from provincial governments (these are responsible for higher education in Canada). These grants, at least as high as 78% of the total budget in the late 1980s (Steele, 2010), have been decreasing rapidly, initiating a significant transformation in Canadian higher education as these institutions scramble to make up the shortfall via alternative revenue streams. This rapid fiscal change is perhaps one of the main catalysts for the current trend to establish dedicated educational entities that will attract international ESL students in the Canadian context. Both private-provider and in-house models are represented in Canada. Several Canadian universities have partnered with private-sector education companies in recent years. For instance, the Australia-based education corporation,

Navitas, partnered with Simon Fraser University in 2006 to establish Fraser International College and with the University of Manitoba in 2007 to open the International College of Manitoba. Navitas and other education corporations have engaged in high-level negotiations with several other Canadian universities, including McMaster University, the University of Windsor, the University of Calgary, and the University of British Columbia, among others. This corporate model has received substantial criticism and coverage in the higher education media as a form of outsourcing higher education, compromising academic standards, and a range of other concerns voiced by faculty associations, students and other stakeholders. While bridging and pathways programmes that promised students a ‘soft landing’ (Redden, 2010, August 4) have existed in Canada for some time, full-fledged international colleges have only recently become a high priority for universities. The University of British Columbia, for instance, established Vantage College in May 2013 and welcomed its first cohort of close to 2002 students in fall 2014. In the coming years, Vantage College is likely to be but one of many institutions of its kind as the trend of corporatisation in Canadian ESL education continues. Although pathways and bridging programmes are increasingly offering international students the opportunity to earn credits towards their degrees while working to meet the English language proficiency requirements to be fully admitted into their programmes, the emerging international colleges promise students up to a full-year of university credit while improving their English language skills. Thus, educational enterprises such as the international colleges are universities’ attempts to design attractive academic packages to more coherently market their services to international students and centralise their operations. In the face of decreasing government support for the successful operation of post-secondary institutions, these are being forced to compete with each other in the international education marketplace. English language programmes in general, and EAP in particular, are of central relevance to these educational – and financial – enterprises. Indeed, from an academic perspective, these are perhaps the key areas where the success of these colleges may be measured given that international students are expected to learn academic content at a first year level in a language they are not yet proficient in – while also developing the language. CHALLENGES IN PROVIDING QUALITY ESL EDUCATION Business Challenges English Language programmes in Canadian higher education, which used to serve local students as remedial or developmental programmes, have morphed into major entrepreneurial projects for universities (Eaton, 2006; Eaton & Goddard, 2008). An evolving challenge, as Eaton and Goddard’s (2008) study of a university-based ELT programme revealed, may be the mismatch between the ELT programmes as revenuegenerating units and the lack of legitimacy and resources for these programmes as businesses within Canadian universities. She found that within a particular institution, the programme administrators who held advanced degrees in applied linguistics did not feel comfortable engaging in marketing without professional training in business. Eaton’s                                                                                                                           2  S.  Zappa-­‐Hollman,  personal  communication,  January  22,  2015.  

study raised the question of whether – and to what extent – universities recognise and support ELT programmes in a way that is commensurate with the economic contribution they make to the institution. Given that the above scenario may continue to be the case at this and other institutions, it has become increasingly important to gain a better understanding of the complexities of the language education sector. For instance, in terms of the business side of English language education, there are many key issues that would benefit from more attention from the scholarly community. Themes that should be discussed in ESL education contexts include the factors that influence international student mobility and the choice of destination countries and programmes (Kirsch, 2014; Mazzarol & Soutar, 2002), as well as the implementation of ethical recruitment practices. For example, Robison (2007) pointed out that many institutions have begun using commercial thirdparty recruitment agents, which sometimes involves unethical recruitment practices. Using an online survey, Kirsch (2014) investigated international educators’ views on the use of recruitment agents in the United States and reported a variety of challenges, namely in terms of misinformed students, unprepared students, and document fraud. Additionally, it would serve both the business as well as the academic side of language education to advance research that explains international ESL students’ decision-making factors to study abroad. It would be informative to know how those students were recruited, why they chose the particular country, city, institution, and programme, as well as other information of relevance to recruitment strategies. From a pedagogical perspective, this would help better understand the background of the students present in our classrooms, and from a marketing perspective, it would be possible to strategically direct recruitment resources. Other questions that would be important to investigate include those related to recruitment agents and issues of brand confusion, misleading information, incomplete disclosure, and parental unawareness of foreign educational systems, to mention just a few. While educators tend to shy away from the argument of education for profit (Luke, 2010), it is important that the ELT community face the current reality that many programmes are designed and implemented to generate profits. For instance, Kinoshita (2001) studied young Japanese female students’ perceptions of Canada and Canadians and reported that those ESL students felt that they were treated as ‘cash-rich foreigners’ during their homestay experiences (p. 102). In this regard, the customers – students – were not satisfied with the quality of the product they paid for, a finding that should be seen as a key implication for the improvement of this field. When formulating and implementing business policies, ELT institutions need to consider the quality of their service, and increasingly, the academic and research expertise of ELT scholars will need to contribute to these aspects of the sector. A sound contribution in this area can only be made if the academic and business counterparts work collaboratively. Educational Challenges The most crucial role that the ELT scholarly community can play is the further advancement of pedagogy—not only the enhancement of classroom practice, but also the reconstruction of the role that ESL education plays in the broader society. For example, Myles and Cheng (2003) have claimed that it is time for universities to reconsider how

they frame international education. As one of the current issues that the field needs to be aware of, the authors pointed out that ‘most of the EAL programs in Canada tend to offer courses to only non-native English speaking students’ (p. 260). Takayama (2000) similarly reported that the lack of enough exposure to Canadian culture frustrated Japanese ESL students in sharp contrast to their expectations. Capitalising on the nature of language learning (e.g., using language in real life situations), English language programmes have ample opportunity to take on a leadership role in linking international education to society. In Eaton and Goddard’s (2008) study at a Canadian university, the lack of legitimacy of ELT programmes within the same institution was brought up as a problematic issue. Even within the university, the administrators perceived that the programme was not bestowed with an equal status compared to other academic units. Thus, universities need to do a better job of raising awareness of the role of their ELT units among the broader university community. It has been pointed out recently that the structure, operation, and contribution of university-based ELT programmes is a key area of research that is missing in the United States (Thompson, 2012), which is also true for Canada. It is our contention in this chapter that research on these university academic units across Canada focusing on a variety of aspects, such as their internal structure and operation, the collective expertise they possess, and the key role they play – fiscally and academically – would help clarify misunderstandings and possibly increase awareness about their contributions to these institutions. Likewise, insufficient understanding towards differences that international students bring to campus have been reported in the literature (e.g., Frey & Roysircar, 2006). While the government promotes educational internationalisation depending on foreign students, some controversial attitudes from stakeholders in higher education question the feasibility and the quality of these initiatives. For example, an online opinion piece written by two Canadian university educators (Friesen & Keeney, 2013, August 7) (which prompted a heated discussion in the comments section) brought to light a small but telling example of the kind of intolerance and prejudice that many international ESL students often face on Canadian campuses, and as the piece showed, some of these sentiments are publicly expressed by professors. There seems to be a view towards nonEnglish speaking students – who have been accepted by the institution by fulfilling the established English language proficiency requirement – as ‘simply unprepared for the rigours of the university classroom’ (p. 2) only because their language ability as well as their interactional and learning style depart from those of native English speakers. While the lack of readiness in the academic environment is also true for local students, such criticism reveals that some educators are themselves unprepared for the rigours of teaching the diverse classrooms that the internationalisation of their campuses invariably entails. It becomes clear, then, that ELT practitioners and researchers need to be more involved in different aspects of the internationalisation movement in Canada. Scholars can play an influential role in raising awareness of the myths and realities surrounding international education on and off campus. There is a discursive – and possibly also ethical – mismatch in the principles underlying education in viewing international students as a source of institutional revenue and potential taxpaying Canadians, on the

one hand, and treating them as aliens who are expected to eventually go back to their own countries, on the other. CONCLUSION In policy documents, Canada recognises and supports the recruitment of international students as valuable educational and economic contributors. As a leading centre of international education, Canada has accumulated much knowledge in this regard, which may be readily transferable to other contexts. However, there is a disjuncture in how the contributions of international ESL students – and their existence for that matter – are still largely invisible to the broader society. While the government is officially advancing a policy that targets international students as future Canadians, for this to be sustainable, it is necessary to ensure that the quality of the education offered to them is preserved so that Canadian institutions continue to be appealing to them. Indeed, in this context, the boundaries between international students and local students seems to be increasingly obscure, given that international students are now being seen as new Canadians in transition. For these benefits from international ESL students to continue, it is crucial to develop a discourse bridge – or at least a dialogue – urgently between several intertwined but somewhat separate sectors: language education, higher education, business, and immigration. In order to implement appropriate support services for students’ successful experiences in a foreign country, practitioners and researchers in English language education need to keep up-to-date with political and economic agendas behind the global trends of international education. Facilitating dialogues in government, ELT and the ELT industry would enhance our ability to share relevant knowledge among multiple educational communities and stakeholders – an essential piece of the puzzle in building more considerate and effective ELT programmes. REFERENCES Advisory Panel on Canada’s International Education Strategy. (2012). International education: A key driver of Canada’s future prosperity. Retrieved from http://www.international.gc.ca/education/assets/pdfs/ies_report_rapport_sei-eng.pdf Anchimbe, E. A. (2006). The native-speaker fever in English language teaching (ELT): Pitting pedagogical competence against historical origin. Linguistik online, 26(1/06), 3-14. Andrade, M. S. (2006). International students in English-speaking universities: Adjustment factors. Journal of Research in International Education, 5(2), 131-154. Citizenship and Immigration Canada. (2012). Annual report to Parliament on immigration. Retrieved from http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/pdf/pub/annual-report2013.pdf Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada. (2014). Canada's international education strategy: Harnessing our knowledge advantage to drive innovation and prosperity. Retrieved from http://international.gc.ca/global-marketsmarches-mondiaux/education/index.aspx?lang=eng

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