Ebola Virus Disease: A Case Of Orientalism

Peters, C.J and LeDuc J.W, "An Introduction to Ebola: The Virus and the Disease", The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 1999 , p.9
Telford, Marguerite, "Protecting Americans from Ebola" (October 20, 2014), < http://cis.org/telford/protect-americans-ebola-mr-president >
MAJUMDER, Maimuna, "The Fight Against Ebola" Significance, vol.11, 2014, p.10-13
"Previous Updates: 2014 West Africa Outbreak". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 11 April 2015." http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/outbreaks/2014-west-africa/previous-updates.html
"Pushed to the Limit and Beyond: A year into the largest ever Ebola outbreak" Médecins Sans Frontières Report
SAID, Edward, Orientalism, New York: Vintage, 1979 pp. 21-22
DAMAS, Léon G., "Hoquet," in Pigments, in Leopold S.-Senghor, ed., Anthologie de la nouvetie poésie nègre et malgache, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1948, pp. 15–17( translate
FOUCAULT,Michel, "La naissance de la médecine sociale ", Dits et écrits, Paris: Gallimard, 1974 p. 210.
FOUCAULT, Michel, L'archelogie du Savoir, Paris: Gallimard, 1969 pp.9-12
Ibid, 25
Médecins Sans Frontières Report
DOUGLAS, Mary, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo, New York: 2001 pp.30
FOUCAULT,Michel, The Birth Of the Clinic, Routledge ,2003 pp.36
LOCKMAN, Zachary, Contending Visions of the Middle East: The History and the Politics of Orientalism ,Cambridge University Press, 2004, pp.18
SAID, Edward, op.cit, p.4-6
LOCKMAN, Zachary, op.cit,pp.52
SÜREYA, Cemal, Bütün Şiirleri,İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, pp
MAZRUI,Alİ A, "The Re-Invention of Africa: Edward Said, V. Y. Mudimbe, and beyond", Research in African Literatures, Vol. 36, No. 3, Edward Said, Africa, and Cultural Criticism, Autumn, 2005, pp. 69
SAID, Edward, op.cit, pp.5-10
"In Fight Against Ebola, Front-Line Health Workers Risked Their Lives And Never Got Paid" , Newsweek http://www.newsweek.com/fight-against-ebola-front-line-health-workers-were-sidelined-funding-333436
Ebola : MSF dénonce une « coalition mondiale de l'inaction http://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2014/09/02/le-monde-est-en-train-de-perdre-la-bataille-contre-la-pire-epidemie-d-ebola-alerte-msf_4480587_3244.html
"Obama to announce Ebola force of 3,000 US military personnel" (2014, 16 September), The Guardian
The White House Office of the Press Secretary "Remarks by the President on the Ebola Outbreak" https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/09/16/remarks-president-ebola-outbreak
LOCKMAN, Zachary, op.cit, p.200-202
FAHMY, Khaled, All The Pasha's Men, Mehmed Ali Pasha, his army and the making of modern Egypt, Cairo: AUC Press, 2002, p.118
ABU-LUGHOD, Lila (ed.), Remaking the Women: Feminism and Modernity in the Middle East, Princiteon: Princeton University Press, 1998, p.35
Ibid, 47
CURTIS, Sarah, Civilizing Habits: Woman Missionaries and the Revival of the French Empire, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p.101-102
FAURE, Olivier," Missions religieuses, missions médicales et « mission civilisatrice » (xixe et xxe s.) : un regard décalé", Histoire, monde et cultures religieuses,Universite de Lyon 3, vol.21 2012/1 p.13
COLE, Teju, "The White Savior Industrial Complex", 2012 http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/03/the-white-savior-industrial-complex/254843/?single_page=true
Ibid
PAILEY, Robtel, Nigeria, "Ebola and the myth of white saviours", 8 November 2014, http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2014/11/nigeria-ebola-myth-white-saviours-201411654947478.html
CONRAD, Joseph, Heart of Darkness,Boston: Bedford Books pp.53
DOUGLAS, Mary, op.cit, pp.3

Ebola Virus Disease: A Case of Orientalism

Orkun Elmacıgil



Ebola Virus Disease: A Case of Orientalism
Orkun Elmacıgil

"İki adım daha atmıyoruz bizi tutuyorlar
Böylece bizi bir kere daha tutup kurşuna diziyorlar
Zaten bizi her gün sabahtan akşama kadar kurşuna
diziyorlar
Bütün kara parçalarında
Afrika dahil"
Cemal Süreya

Introduction

A news documentary of Vice News about the Ebola Outbreak in Liberia opens with the scene of a muddy marker square in the capital of country, Monrovia. While some young Liberian man are sickeningly eating monkey meat and saying carelessly that there is no Ebola in Liberia, a white, good-looking and western virologist begins to self-assuredly talk about the real danger of the Ebola disease and the effects of Liberian life style as guilt of this possible disease. At the point where the western expertise meets again and again with the oriental -actually non-western- ignorance and passivity, we also faced with a kind of strange situation: Ebola has become another instrument to maintain the western preponderance over rest of the world.
First and foremost, Ebola Virus Epidemic, which has caused significant mortality, is currently ongoing in West African countries and spreading also in Western Europe and U.S. If we wanted to define what Ebola is, in a scientific manner, we probably have selected a more objective way to identify a virus. Briefly it is an infectious and frequently fatal disease marked by fever and severe internal bleeding, spread through contact with infected body fluids by a filovirus, that is to say, Ebola virus. Everything is looking neutral and materialistic until this point. But, if we choose to research this object in the context of social sciences, we can be confronted with face validity, in which orientalist discourses are observable and detectible. Just an ordinary example: the disease has instrumentalized by some anti-immigration movements under cover of protection of the borders against virus. The following question is asked in the website of the anti-immigrant think tank "Center for Immigration Studies" to the U.S government's authority which is accused by center because of its lack of required precautions:
"President Obama should protect the country by using our immigration laws and policies as they were intended. If the president does not make Americans the top priority, who will?"
From the perspective of materialist medicine, Ebola can be just a virus, which has a dangerous spreading speed. On the other hand, as I said before, the perception of Ebola is not based just on the medical analysis, on the contrary, ever since 2014, which was the beginning of the outbreak, Ebola were evaluated by taking into consideration of social, historical and political processes. That is to say, Ebola is never just Ebola.
The swiftly founded relationality between Ebola and immigration policy, that is to say between socio-economic case and a virus, can be received with our astonishment. Moreover, one can say that this situation is at most a one of the deliria of an extremist anti-immigrant movement. But, this explication will cause miss the real story behind the Ebola case. So, establishing a connection by anti-immigrant movements between Ebola disease and "strange" immigrants is not based only on insane delusion of extremist politics, this situation has its origins in the discourse which produced directly by West.
In this study, the perception of Ebola disease outside Africa will be examined especially on the basis of public opinion in the West to the epidemic. Foucauldian and Saidian history approach about the produced reality of the historicity is primary modality to analyze this disease process. In addition, instrumentalization of history toward Ebola virus to prejudicially reproduce orientalist discourse against "the other" of occidental civilization was main motivations of this work. Apart from these, the changing perception of the hygiene toward the Orientalist and Eurocentric discourse is another touching point of this study, inasmuch as conceptualization of cleanliness is always fictionalized on behalf of West and to the detriment of non western entities. At this stage, it should be understood that the emergence of Ebola case in West Africa is not based on just the disease control for the public weal, rather this process has became a production of discourse in which African identity turns into the epitome of the disease. At this point, the main goal which was maintained by this study is to show that the perception of Ebola is not independent from the political and cultural perception about Africans by West.

Ebola History: A Politic Virus

Ebola virus was first reported amongst humans in 1976 in Zaire, modern day Democratic Republic of Congo. Almost 40 years later, according to reports of Center for Disease Control and Prevention, it has reported that an outbreak of Ebola hemorrhagic fever in four southeastern districts of Guinea. It is at present the largest Ebola outbreak ever recorded, involving multiple countries and continents. Cases have been reported in three countries with widespread and intense transmission -Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone- and five countries with initial cases or with localized transmission -Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Spain and the United States of America-. Just as « Médecins Sans Frontières » (Doctors without Borders) has stated in their annual Ebola report with the saying "Global Coalition of Inaction", the West's response to outbreak was firstly based on an ignorance and connivance.
This situation has changed after first case of Ebola in U.S. and threats from distant and poor Africa has began to be considered important. In this case, West, adhering to its historicity and discourse about non-West, is in the superior position over the main victim of the epidemic, that is to say Africa, which cannot even be included the process of decision and policy making over its own destiny. According as Edward Said highlights about the representation problem of the non-West actor, Africa situated in a"represented" position rather than a representative position. It can be claimed that the relationality between the terms of representation and representative is always formed in countenance of West. To deal with this representation problem has always been a compeller for African people. The most naïve expression of this hesitant situation come up through a poetry that describes the feelings of a native child living in the French colonial:
"My mother wanting a son to keep in mind
if you do not know your history lesson
you will not go to mass on Sunday in
your Sunday clothes
that child will be a disgrace to the family
that child will be our curse
shut up I told you you must speak French
the French of France
the Frenchman's French
French French"
This little child has learned directly that his representation problem can be solved just by the Westerner resources, which was imposed by West itself. Moreover, this ironic situation is a symptom of discursive vicious circle that is repeatedly formed to the detriment of Africa. Just as speaking French is almost an obligation for hold in esteem for a young African boy, adaptation to hygienic measures of West is a necessity is a mandatory fact to be categorized as "normal" in modern Western episteme. The social control over individuals does not take place only through consciousness or ideology, but also in the body and with the body. In capitalist modern society which is based on this Westerner episteme, it is the bio-politics mattered above al. The body is a bio-political reality; and Medicine is a bio-political strategy. This shift from the individual-body perception to the multiple-body, that is to say the notion of population, includes biopolitics as a technology of power. This medicine is providing an epistemological transformation from policies of anatomical human body. Then, birth rate, mortality, longevity, fecundity have become objects of westernization of biology which are expressed in terms of proportion and rate statistics. Therefore, the numeral explication and domination of statistics by explication Ebola disease in West Africa can be more understandable.
At this juncture that biopolitics and orientalist tendency have confronted, Africa has been instrumentalized toward western discourse. Now, in Ebola disease case, we easily observe that a new bio-policy and historicity have emerged in Foucaldian manner. Subsequent to Ebola became a global threat that can affect hygienic Western civilization, the meaning of Ebola has also transformed within discourse. After, Ebola is rendered to an enemy of West. This perception is first principle of Ebola discourse. Africa is a frontline of this battle between the nature and West.
With the intent of creating continuity between epidemics and Africa, researchers which are speaking through the West have an approach that not only denies reasons of Ebola disease in West Africa arising from the international system such as poverty, but also emphasize the ill-fated centrality of Africa in this disease. According to the World Health Organization's report, due to economic reasons and backwardness, Africa has the lowest healthy life expectancy in the world. But these facts did not reflect in the press or these unnecessary realities are perceived as a minor detail. The discourse of African poverty, which deserves a more detailed analysis in another broad in scope research, is seen as a natural and historical reality of the continent.
Just as Foucault said about the history's dexterity in establishing connection between irrelevant events for transform the discontinuity in history to a produced continuity, there is also artificiality toward Africa, which is perceived in different ways as a cradle of diseases because of its naturality. The crucial function of enunciative modalities of medical discourse (status of physician, which includes both the criteria of competence and knowledge, Institutions; institutional locations from which the doctor holds his speech; the various positions that are occupied by the subject of medical discourse) leads Foucault to challenge the "powers of constituting consciousness". Indeed, speaking of the African who was presented as a mute object in the context of theories and paradigms developed in the West means the necessity to transform scientific reporting that locked Africa and Africans in the role of simple raw materials providers to Western science labs. In the Ebola case, African people and the whole continent is seen as a big laboratory for the Westerner specialist.
The produced inferiority of Africa is encountered again in the reports of Western states about Ebola disease and its effect. The maps, which are made about Ebola, are not based on show to avoid death of African people, contrarily they are shaped about the prevention of the disease, in other words West's new enemy.

(Ebola Disease Map from World Health Organization)
As one can see above, the spread of disease is stated with trans-national border, which does not include the Western country, even though some Ebola cases are notified in U.S.A and Italy. Ebola then, is never a materialist and unique event. As Mary Douglas claimed that "where there is dirt, there is a system", Ebola disease has also become an object of systematic ordering and classification of matter. In this classification, the metaphorical territory of the disease shows us the artificial separation between the healthy West and unhealthy rest. In this way, "the science of man [ ...] opened up a field that was divided up according to the principles of the normal and the pathological" and the ill Africa has failed to conform the western norm of health. Hegemonic biomedical discourse shapes both the historicity of Africa, which was embodied by West as a naturally unhealthful, and today's reality in which scientist, medical specialist, media and western peoples have accorded the authority to define reality. So, the disease must have a land, a mappable territory and there must be also a secured place against disease. The clear and historicisized separate between the kingdom of the well and the kingdom of the sick, West reproduces continuingly its own hygienic secured place against Africa as a consequence of disease with its own faults.

The Cure of West
Africa, which is seen as a natural backdrop of diseases, has been entered into a hierarchy, which is founded on the behalf of western superiority. If we trace this hierarchy, we are faced with a much older than thought historicity. According to Zachary Lockman, this historicity was founded on Christian conception of the world, in which it can be said that this Christianity can be perceived as today's Western episteme superiority:
"Europe was the land of Japheth, of the Gentiles, the Greeks and the Christians; Asia was the land of Semitic peoples, glorious in that they had produced the [ancient Hebrew] patriarchs and prophets, the chosen people [i.e. the Jews] and Christ himself; but – as the land of the circumcised adherents of older laws – condemned to an inferiority which was stated in the scriptures: "God shall enlarge Japheth and he shall dwell in the tents of Shem." As for Africa, the lot of the unhappy descendants of Ham, the Hamitic subjection was equally clearly laid down: Canaan was to be the servant both of Shem and Japheth: "a servant of servants shall he be unto his brethren"
I claim that this ontological hierarchy of the races is not just a mythology. Actually, it is a reality which is based on political, cultural and economic notions from which the reasons of perpetual poverty of Africa raises. In fact, the point that attracts the notice is the implementation of an almost same discursive process, which is similar with the reproduced discourse over Orient, toward Africa. In opposition to Middle East, the Africa cannot be preserved on a scholar, academic domain as Said did for his Orient. Here, what we need is to expand the boundaries of Orientalist discourse from North Africa to the whole of Africa.
Under these circumstances, it can be easily claimed that Africa, in a complex system which is based on enslavement and colonialist period, is an orientalism object. So, this continent, within the framework of dominant western approach, is together with Said's Orient. Referring to the aid of literature, as stated in Cemal Süreya's famous poem "Üvercinka", Africa is included in all alienation efforts of Western episteme:
"Besides they shot us every day from morning until evening
In every continents
Including Africa"
As it is understood, Africa share same destiny with Said's Orient, which was shaped by French, British and American hegemony. In that categorization both Africa and Middle East is the other of Western consciousness.
Considering all of these, the Ebola case bears a striking resemblance to Saidian conceptualizations about the relations between Orient and West, in which Orientalism was described as a system of discourses that bases on economic domain to aesthetical domain and this discourse perpetually reproduce in itself. As Said underlined the artificial separation between pure and political knowledge, we can easily observe that scientific reports about Ebola and generally Africa, are produced toward a westerner approach, which examines Africa as a West's object.
The most remarkable part of the case has begun after the transformation of Ebola disease to a global disease. After this point, Ebola Disease in West Africa has passed from denegation period to an instrumentalized treatment process. In fact, the treatment has become a military sense too. It is not coincidental that the presentation of the researches of international experts as a war and the whole West Africa region as a frontline in Western media. The press starts to attracts the attention of peoples with titles as "In Fight Against Ebola…", "The world is losing the battle against Ebola" The laboratories has become the "war room" in this discourse and it can be said that we are faced with the militarization of medicine .If war is too serious to be entrusted to the military, the more we can question their irruption in the field of public health. The former colonizers and all States intending to rely on the world stage send soldiers and medical staff to West Africa. Under the date of 14 September 2014, U.S President Barrack Obama declared a deployment of 3,000 troops to afflicted region to catch Ebola Virus in an American way: that is to say, in accordance with Western episteme which was based on a total preponderance over non-West, "command and control mechanism" of Western civilization should be always maintained in any case. In addition to this decision, Obama said:
"If the outbreak is not stopped now, we could be looking at hundreds of thousands of people affected, with profound economic, political and security implications for all of us"
One cannot know, if Obama noticed, but this statement reminds us instantly Foucault and Said's conceptualisation toward West and its self-reproductive discourse. Under these circumstances, objective truth, which shows bootlessness of a military invasion against a virus, was a waste of time. In this sense, each prescription produced by the West is perceived as the only cure resort.
It can be argued that, with the reference to work of Khaled Fahmy about the modernization process of Egyptian Army, All The Pasha's Men, Mehmed Ali Pasha, his army and the making of modern Egypt, western modern mechanism as the ideas of power in Foucauldian term identifies the other "defeated" communities or civilizations as the pre historic entities which should be replaced with the more modern structure. Even though the modernization process was relatively inner actions as such in Egyptian army modernization, this process was based on "mainly order and progress that worked on physical bodies and material space in a minute, exact and meticulous manner, exhibiting what Foucault called disciplinary, microphysicalpower."As mentioned above, even while the modernization processes which is practiced by magic hand of West was implemented with the consent of the pre-modern side of this relationality, the dominant westerner discourse has crossed always the line of this consent, that is to say the West civilization began to write the meaning of non-West from West's own historicity. If we the Egyptian peasant did not want to send their daughters to modern school, because this intervention to peasantry life signifies a supreme and unitary authority that dismantle the old and divided authority of peasant about their own lives.
This established pressure over the non –West actor can be seen in a different and more comprehensible orientalistic case, which is shown by West as a salvation of Africa from its own nature and backwardness: mission civilisatrice. (Civilizing mission) which was a famous Westerner discourse at 19th and 20th century. It was a very powerful idea. Obviously, not so many of the natives believed it, but the French believed that was what they were doing. The important part is that the sanitarian characteristic of this civilizing mission. Physicians or enlightened and dedicated missionaries has acted in conformity with their duty which was based on bringing the Enlightenment of Reason, therefore we can observe in Africa that there was modern crusades against disease for medicine and civilization and civilized, Westerner "religion". In this situation, it is easy to attach this colonialist Western approach on Africa with contemporary action against Ebola. As the myth of white savior, which can be detected in Ebola case, colonized Africa has been seen as a primitive and non-civilized object that could reach a civilized life only with the aid of West in the discourse of mission civilisatrice. In this situation, the limitation of this "isolated" disaster only in the borders of Africa is not an question of debate:
"[The American's] good heart does not always allow him to think constellationally. He does not connect the dots or see the patterns of power behind the isolated 'disasters.' All he sees are hungry mouths, and he … is putting food in those mouths as fast as he can. All he sees is need, and he sees no need to reason out the need for the need"
It can be resumed as non-African expert opinions about how to civilize Africa in the mission civilisatrice of France, and now, these non-African experts of West talks about how to save Liberia, Sierra Leona and Guinea from Ebola. In all published reports, by ignoring the contribution of African doctors and researchers, Africa is described as a stagnant and irrational continent in medical sense. At this point, white saviors has came on the purpose of the save Africa with their weapons and discourse of preponderance. In this way, Ebola is shaped by the discourse which reproduces a historical continuity about African backwardness. According this discourse, all that is "non-western" melts into air, even in the case of diseases, because the non-West cure of Ebola is negated by the west superiority discourse:
"While the US has been scrambling to address the few cases of Ebola on its shores with a series of policy missteps, Nigeria showed that it could be done by an African country on its own terms.
With 31 percent of overall healthcare spending accounted for by the federal government in 2012 alone, Nigeria used infrastructure and systems already in place to fight polio, to contain Ebola. Institutions such as the Nigerian Center for Disease Control, the Nigerian Field Epidemiology Training Program, and the Lagos State Ministry of Health responded quickly by quarantining and treating suspected Ebola patients, tracing the contacts of those infected, and launching a massive public awareness campaign about how to avoid further transmission of the virus. With more doctors than Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone combined, Nigeria also galvanised the support of healthcare workers who had previously been on strike.
Beyond Nigeria's technical expertise and rapid response, equally important is the country's unique brand of superiority that fundamentally challenges the white saviour complex."
As it can be seen above, the success of Nigerian government against Ebola disease without a westerner help is not an adequate sample to the perfect imaginary swamp of the West civilization, that is to say, Africa.

Conclusion

Ebola remains the quintessentiel propaganda virus. There are almost 40 years that it lasts, since its discovery in 1976. That year is also the date of the first introduction of "biopower", by Michel Foucault. In the concept of biopower, public hygiene, birth regulation policies, management of mortality were gradually seized by accounting mechanisms and industrialization to manage the living. That is to say, the fight against Ebola means also management of life.
In her famous book, Heart of Darkness, Joseph Conrad described Africa as a "treacherous" domain of a lurking death and hidden evil. This white reader perception about the "darkness" of Africa still continues and it constitutes repeatedly a long discursive tradition which transforms the realities of Africa. This infernal territory is always an optimum place for a virus disease which can africanize the entire world, especially the West. To prevent this tragic situation, Western episteme intend to manage these diseases with its own method and all western methodology, from my point of view, is based on cultural and racial stereotypes which are shaped by a long manipulated historicity. The last Ebola case is just another example of how these discursive processes reproduces itself by alienating Africa. Theories of Ebola disease in West Africa have been influenced by assumptions about the inferiority and unhygienic situation of continent.
Some contagions or contamination are used as analogies for "expressing a general view of the social order": establishing a parallelism between the life style or sexual habits of Africans, which creates a possible and dangerous sex fluid between humans, and Ebola disease reminds us the immanence of power into all human relationality. At this point, which Foucault's bio power conceptualization and Said's argumentation about the discourse of Western civilization are gathering, Africa has become an object in which the West reproduces its hygiene and health concepts. Under these circumstances hygiene can be identified as a consciousness of relations- or a set of ordered relations, and Africa, with its unconsciousness, has crossed the line, subverted the world health system of the world and has been imprisoned in dirtiness. For this reason, non-immigrant or white people represent an innate pureness, while African people is obliged to live together with this possible reproduced dirtiness. While Africa is subject to a discussion, presumption of innocence becomes reversed: "The dark continent" is guilty until proven innocent.
In this paper, I have examined Ebola case by discussing various forms of discourse in which the idea of African inferiority in the presence of Western civilization has emerged. This case has a orientalistic sense, inasmuch as Ebola was shown to be strongly attached with Africa's ill-fate and this situation has been managed by western discourse to maintain its own superiority. From anti-immigrant movements to "Africa friendly" World Health Organization, all occidental institutions contribute in different levels to the continuity of African darkness. In Ebola-related biomedical discourse, there is always a social construction that is quite similar with orientalist discourse of West about Middle East region. The social construction of this disease is not only based on the presentation of this disease in the media, but also the salvation promise of West about disease joins in with this construction process. Finally, in this discourse, truth is a moment of falsehood. Ebola has become more than a virus disease, au contraire; it includes all historic processes and discourses about Africa in which a western subconscious whispers: Africa bring its illness on itself.


BIBLIOGRAPHY
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