Cultivating Multicultural Competence Through Active Participation: Extracurricular Activities and Multicultural Learning

NASPA Journal, 2006, Vol. 44, no. 1

Cultivating Multicultural Competence Through Active Participation: Extracurricular Activities and Multicultural Learning David X. Cheng Chun-Mei Zhao

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This study examined the relevance of higher education institutions’ existing student activity programming and its effectiveness in promoting students’ multicultural learning. Employing path analysis, this study explored the level of undergraduates’ participation in selected college organizations and activities and its linkage to multicultural competence development. Findings show significant positive effect of extracurricular activities on multicultural learning. This study taps into a timely topic and has important implications for institutions’ day-to-day policy and practice in sustaining a continued commitment to multiculturalism.

Over the past 2 decades, a growing number of studies have demonstrated that a multicultural environment on campus has positive

David X. Cheng is the assistant dean for research and planning, Columbia College and the Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science; and adjunct associate professor, Department of Organization and Leadership, Teachers College, Columbia University in New York, New York. Chun-Mei Zhao is a research scholar at the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching in Stanford, California. 13

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impact on various student outcomes (Appel, Cartwright, Smith & Wolf, 1996; Chang, 1999; Hurtado, Engberg, Ponjuan, & Landreman, 2002; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Villalpando, 2002). Examining research evidence from a major national study of undergraduate students, Astin (1993) identified a clear pattern that emphasizing diversity as an institutional policy and providing curricular and extracurricular opportunities to address multicultural issues are associated with “widespread beneficial effects on a student’s cognitive and affective development” (p. 48). Educating students with multicultural competence and preparing them to participate in a diverse democracy are indispensable components of institutional mission (AACU, 1995; Antonio, Astin, & Cress, 2000). Given the general acceptance of diversity and multiculturalism in today’s higher education community, Howard-Hamilton, Richardson, and Shuford (1998) maintain that the issue is no longer “what should be done to prepare for or enhance multiculturalism—the issue is what has been done thus far and can a continued commitment to multiculturalism be achieved?” (p. 6). Responding to the call for identifying and understanding the impact of multiculturalism on campus life, researchers have developed surveys and other instrumentation to assess multicultural competence of teachers (Pettus & Allain, 1999; Ponterotto, Baluch, Greig, & Rivera, 1998), counselors (LaFromboise, Coleman, & Hernandez, 1991; Ponterotto, Sanchez, & Magids, 1991; D’Andrea, Daniels, & Heck, 1991), and student affairs professionals (Pope & Reynolds, 1997; Pope, Jordan, Stern, & Mueller, 1997; Pope & Mueller, 2000). For instance, the multicultural competence concept developed by Pope and Reynolds (1997) consists of three components: awareness, knowledge, and skills. Using this approach as the theoretical framework, King and Howard-Hamilton (2003) studied multicultural experiences and competence levels of student affairs staff and graduate students preparing to enter the profession. The idea is that, once we can evaluate individuals’ multicultural competence levels rather accurately at various educational stages, we can find out the value-added effect of an institution or a program. While the conceptual dissection of multicultural competence and the effort to gauge the concept have been valuable, there are gaps to be filled by further studies, especially in the area of undergraduate education. Most studies have focused on skilled professionals and few, if 14

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any, are available to measure multicultural competence of undergraduate students (Sheridan, Sheridan, & Anderson, 2002). With respect to the instruments developed to assess multicultural competence, two problems exist. First, multicultural instrumentation is still “in its infancy with regard to empirical validation” (Ponterotto, Rieger, Barrett, & Sparks, 1994, p. 321), as concluded by the authors after reviewing four multicultural-focused instruments in counseling. Second, even if institutions want to use professionally developed instruments to measure student outcomes in the area of multiculturalism, the instruments tend to be too lengthy and complicated to administer to a general student population. Considering the practical difficulties in studying the static competence levels and the interwoven nature of student learning experiences, researchers have developed a different line of research on diversity and multiculturalism in recent years. The research in this line focuses on a more contextualized inquiry—i.e., studying the effect of various multicultural activities and experiences on students’ learning and understanding of diversity, as well as how actively an institution committed to such diversity-related activities. For example, using data from the national longitudinal survey of first-time freshmen (Cooperative Institutional Research Program), Villalpando (2002) examined the impact of student involvement in such activities as campus protests/demonstrations, racial/cultural awareness workshops, volunteer activities, and socializing with people of different race/ethnic backgrounds on their overall college experience. Employing readily available institutional research data, the author captured the dynamic interplay between undergraduate students’ experience and its multicultural outcomes.

A Conceptual Framework In studying student learning, scholars now concur that “out-of-class experiences influence student learning and personal development” (Astin, 1985, 1991; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991; Kuh, 1995; Tinto, 1987). Two simple but powerful theoretical frameworks have been guiding research in this area. The first is Tinto’s (1987) theory of student departure, which states that social integration, in parallel with academic integration, represents an intermediate stage when students

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become committed to the normative attitudes and values of their peers and feel accepted in the campus community. Ultimately, this satisfying and rewarding social experience presumably leads to student retention. In its subsequent applications to other student outcomes, Tinto’s model has successfully explained how integration can attribute to academic achievements, personal growth, and many positive changes (Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, p. 53). The second is Astin’s theory of involvement, which offers a more elaborate explanation of the powerful educational function of student involvement. According to Astin (1985, 1991), students learn by actively seeking involvement in college life. If integration is seen more as an intermediate stage that leads to some larger purposes in Tinto’s model, Astin’s theory places students in the center stage where they actively exploit the opportunities offered by an institution, and the amount of growth depends on the quality and quantity of their involvement effort. Building upon the two theoretical models, Kuh (1995) sought to further explore which out-of-class activities (for example, volunteerism, student government, on-campus job) are linked with what outcomes (for example, social competence, reflective thought, knowledge application). Different from the outcomes-oriented assessment models, which overemphasize the capacities or accomplishments of graduates, this conceptual framework sheds light on the practices and processes within a college or university (Pascarella, 2001). This line of thinking provides a conceptual framework for understanding students’ multicultural competence development. While it is valuable to sever the concept of multiculturalism into such distinct units as knowledge, awareness, attitudes, and skills, we should never lose sight of the fact that multicultural competence is after all one of many skills a college experience is designed to offer. Before reallocating resources to create new programs with fancy labels of multiculturalism, college administrators need to justify their decision through research in at least two areas: first, to assess the campus environment so as to better understand the extent to which diversity is accepted and opportunities are available for interactions among diverse groups; and second, to measure the extent to which existing programs, organizations, and activities contribute to students’ multicultural competence.

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Purpose of the Study This study is to explore the relationship between students’ participation in various organizations and activities and their self-perceived gains in multicultural competence. The findings will also shed light on higher education institutions’ existing student activity programming and its effectiveness in promoting multicultural learning. The institutional setting for the study was a private residential college within a large research university in an urban area. The institution admits traditional-aged, highly motivated, and academically competitive students. With selective admissions criteria and high graduation rates, the hallmark of student achievement at this type of institutions goes beyond such common outcome measures as degree completion. After spending institutional resources on extracurricular activities to promote student organizations, teach leadership and multicultural skills, and enhance student social life on campus, administrators and researchers wanted to account for what has happened to the students as participants of college organizations and activities and how they perceive their gains in multicultural competence in the context of their college environment. Specifically, three research questions guide this study: (a) To what organizations and activities do students attribute their gains in multicultural competence?, (b) Does participation in different organizations with different levels of involvement lead to differentiated perceptions of multicultural environment on campus?, and (c) What is the propensity for students of different characteristics (e.g., gender, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, grades, level of class) to participate in these activities?

Methodology Sample The data in this study were collected through a Web-based survey, and the questionnaire was sent to all 5,417 undergraduate students enrolled in spring 2004. The survey solicited students’ opinions about campus life in several dimensions: from instruction and academic advising to residential programs and student clubs and activities.

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Fifty-four percent of the target population, or 2,921 students, responded to the survey. Among the respondents, 51% were female and 49% male; 18% were first-year students, 30% sophomore, 20% junior, and 21% seniors; 57.6% were White, 21.4% Asian, 5.3% Hispanic, 4.3% Black, and 4.2% biracial/multiple racial students. Most students lived on campus and entered as first-time freshmen. An excerpt of the survey instrument appears in Appendix A. Three sets of questions in the survey are of particular interest—degree of participation in a series of campus extracurricular activities, students’ perceptions on their campus social environment, and student gains in multiple aspects as a result of participating in college activities. The degree of student participation in various extracurricular activities, such as political groups, social action groups, cultural organization, student government, volunteer and community service groups, and so on, is measured at three levels: if students participated, were an active member, or played a leadership role. For the respondents who did not answer the question, we treated the missing values as no participation. Survey questions on college environment solicited student opinions on nine statements about the campus’ social environment. Examples of the statements included “my college provides an environment for free and open expression of ideas, opinions, and beliefs” and “I feel accepted as a member of several college communities,” etc. The survey also sought students’ opinion on the extent to which students gained from involvement in activities and student groups in multiple aspects, such as working in a diverse community, problem solving, conflict resolution, advocacy and coalition building, and more. In addition, the survey also asked a set of information about student characteristics, including class level, gender, race/ethnicity, cumulative GPA, family income, and citizenship. The survey questions and descriptive statistics are presented in Appendixes B, C, and D. Analytic Strategy Like many statistical studies, we began our study with an overall hypothesis. Specifically, based on the student involvement and integration framework, we composed a path model that represented the hypothetic relationships among the four groups of variables related to the research questions. That is, students’ characteristics affect their 18

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level of involvement in college activities; the level of participation in these activities and events, in turn, affects their perception of the college diversity environment. Taken together, the perception of campus environment and the level of involvement in these campus activities both have a direct impact on student gains in multicultural competence (Figure 1).

Figure 1 Path Analysis Diagram

A path model is advantageous in that it is not only able to examine the direct effect of a variable (represented by the immediate starting point of an arrow in a path diagram) but also the indirect effect (represented by the influence of a variable prior to the immediate starting point of an arrow in a path diagram). For example, in this study, student characteristics may have a direct effect on students’ multicultural competence gains, but they may also have an indirect effect on the multicultural competence development through their influence on level of students’ participation in extracurricular activities or through students’ perceptions of campus diversity environment. The path model is able to detect which path is statistically significant and which is not, and it therefore informs the strength of direct and indirect effects of studied variables. Embedded in the path model are a few submodels. Each submodel is a multiple regression model. In this study, three of them directly relate 19

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to the research questions we explore. To address research question (a), the first submodel, path model A, treats the multicultural competence gain as the dependent variable; and college activities, students’ perceptions of campus environment, and student characteristics as the independent variables. To address research question (b), the second submodel, path model B, specifies student perceptions of campus diversity environment as the dependent variable and students’ participation of extracurricular activities and student characteristics as the independent variables. To address research question (c), the third submodel, path model C, identifies the level of participation in extracurricular activities as the dependent variable and student characteristics as the sole independent variables. This study involved a large number of variables. To simplify the data analysis without compromising the quality, we resorted to a data reduction technique: the Principal Component Analysis (PCA). PCA is able to extract a major common component from a number of correlated variables. It is a convenient tool to develop a scale (or an index) of a common concept that is not easily measured directly from a single measure. Such a concept is also called a “latent” construct. The multicultural competence concept in this study is a good example of a latent construct. To prepare for the data for path analysis, first, we developed a multicultural competence scale. We selected four aspects of skills based on their face value; i.e., their conceptual relevancy to multicultural competence. The four sets of skills are: “abilities in working in a diverse community, problem solving, conflict resolution, and advocacy and coalition building.” These four dimensions of gains are significantly correlated, and the correlation coefficients among the four items range from .414 to .549. As illustrated in Table 1, a principle component analysis (with Varimax rotation) was followed based on the four items and one single component was derived. We created the multicultural competence gain index by calculating a weighted summated scale; that is, we weighted the scores of each of the four gains based on their factor loadings, or their relative importance in contributing to the multicultural competence concept, and summed up all the weighted scores. The internal consistency of the scale (Cronbach’s alpha) is .781.

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Table 1 Principle Component Analysis on Multicultural Competence Gain

Next, we examined the eight survey questions on student perceptions on the campus social environment. As the eight variables are still cumbersome to analyze and interpret, we again employed the principle component analysis to reduce the complexity. Two major components were extracted: (a) the social environment that is diversity friendly; and (b) the social environment that provides ample opportunities to foster intercultural communication. The environment variables and their factor loadings on each component are presented in Table 2. Again we created two weighted summated scores for the two student perception scales. The internal consistencies (Cronbach’s alpha) of the two environment scales are .81 and .73 respectively. In the next step, we conducted a scan of the bi-variate relationships among the three blocks of variables that are of particular interest—college activities, student perceptions of campus social environment, and the multicultural competence scale. This step gave us more detailed and in-depth understanding in terms of which particular college activities have stronger connections with students’ perceptions on campus environments and multicultural competence gains. The correlation coefficients are listed in Table 3. From this table, we can see several activities and student groups are particularly associated with gains in multicultural competence — cultural organization (r = .14), political group (r = .13), social action group (r = .16), student government (r = .18), social organizations (r = .13), and 21

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Table 2 Principle Component Analysis on Student Perceptions of Campus Social Environment Variables

volunteer/community service group (r = .18). Student perceptions of campus environment, especially with respect to students’ favorable view of the campus diversity atmosphere, are correlated rather strongly with multicultural competence gains (r = .40). All of the correlation coefficients are significant at the .01 level. Based on the strength of correlations between various extracurricular activities and the multicultural competence gain, we focused further on six college activities with relatively strong associations. The six activities are participation in political groups, social action groups, cultural organizations, student government, social organizations, and volunteer/community service activities. At this point, we had largely finished the data preparation by simplifying, selecting, and organizing variables (i.e., survey questions) in a more concise and efficient way. We were ready to run the path model. 22

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Table 3 Correlation Coefficients Between Students’ College Activities, Perceptions of Campus Social Environment, and their Multicultural Competence Gains

Findings The path analysis showed the direct and indirect effects of student characteristics, their participation in selected college activities, and their perception of campus social environment on student gains in

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multicultural competence. Figure 2 illustrates the path coefficients, and only statistically significant paths (p < .01) are included in the path diagram. A path coefficient is a standardized regression coefficient (beta) representing the direct effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable in the path model. In the following discussion, we used “b” to represent the values of path coefficients. Addressing research question (a), the results of the path model A showed that actively participating in various college activities is strongly linked to students’ gains in multicultural competence—in this study, active membership in student government (b = .118), cultural organizations (b = .119), social action (b = .115), and volunteer/community service groups (b = .114) has a significantly positive effect on students’ multicultural gains. We did not find a significant effect of two extracurricular activities—student political groups and social organizations. We found mixed connections between students’ participation in these college activities and their perceptions of college environment. Involvement in social action groups, cultural organizations, and social organizations does not have a significant influence on students’ perception of their campus social environment. On the other hand, participation in student government (b = .067) or volunteer and community service groups (b = .055) contributes moderately to students’ affirmative opinion that their campus social environment is open and diversity friendly. Getting involved in student government (b = .086) also positively associates with the perception that a campus provides programs and opportunities to foster intercultural communication. In contrast, students involved in political groups (b = -.113) perceive their campus not offering enough opportunities to bridge intercultural communications. Student characteristics in general do not have a significant direct effect on multicultural competence gain, one exception being lower class level (first-year and sophomore) students (b = -.146), who are less likely to report gains in multicultural competence than their upper level counterparts. As shown in Table 4, student characteristics do not have a statistically significant indirect effect on their multicultural competence gains.

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Figure 2 Path Coefficients

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Table 4 Direct and Indirect Effects of Selected College Activities and Student Characteristics on Multicultural Competence Gain

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Path model B answers research question (b). How students perceive their campus diversity environment is closely related to their gains in multicultural competence. When students perceive their campus to be open, nurturing, and friendly to students from very different backgrounds, they are more likely to experience and report gains with respect to their multicultural competence. Some student characteristics have significant effect on perceptions of the campus. For example, Black (b = -.097) and Asian (b = -.079) students tend to hold less positive views on their campus environment in terms of its friendliness to students from diverse backgrounds; in contrast, students from wealthier families (b = .078) tend to favorably perceive the campus environment to be diversity friendly. In addition, first-year and sophomore students (b = .095) tend to report that the campus provided more opportunities for fostering intercultural communication than junior and senior students, while African American (b = -.165), female (b = .052), and biracial students (b = -.054) feel that the campus is lacking opportunities for such activities. Path Model C examines research question (c). Participating in various college activities is a very important step for students to understand diversity, develop essential competence needed in an increasingly heterogeneous society, and become well-rounded future citizens. Students of different characteristics may vary in their propensity to participate in different types of college activities. This study reveals that minority students, especially Asian (b = .343) and Black students (b = .210) are more likely than their White counterparts to participate in cultural organizations; students who are U.S. citizens (b = -.069) are less likely to participate in cultural organizations than noncitizen students. Students with higher GPA (b = .082), female (b = .070), and Black students (b = .082) are more likely to be actively involved in social action groups. Students with higher GPA (b = .054), female (b = .134), Asian (b = .069), and U.S. citizens (b = .071) are more likely to participate in volunteer and community service groups than their respective counterparts. Asian students (b = .063) and students from wealthy family backgrounds (b = .052) are more inclined to get involved in student government.

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Discussion Although today’s higher education community has been receptive to the ideas of diversity and multiculturalism, and institutional resources have been allocated to enhance campus social environment and student multicultural learning, “the process of achieving this goal is typically perplexing” (Howard-Hamilton, Richardson, & Shuford, 1998, p. 9). This study, therefore, represents an exploratory effort to seek empirical evidence of students’ participation in various organizations and activities and its association with their self-perceived gains in multicultural competence. Four tentative conclusions are offered to explain this association. First, student involvement in various activities and organizations has the potential to contribute to their multicultural learning, and the degree of their participation matters. Among different types of activities, participating in cultural organizations, social action groups, student government, and volunteer/community service groups seems to have led directly to student gains in multicultural competence. Moreover, the significant connections between participation in these activities and gains in multicultural competence emphasize the necessary commitment of students to these organizations: active involvement in student organizations and activities can maximize students’ learning in multicultural competence. Second, students’ perception of campus environment being diversity friendly is most positively associated with their self-perceived gains in multicultural competence. Their satisfaction with the opportunities to interact with people of other racial/ethnic backgrounds also contributes to the level of self-perceived gains. Framed in the Tinto-AstinKuh conceptual model, these findings have provided strong testimony to the principle that students learn through active involvement in activities so as to become socially integrated. Third, the weak, in some cases negative (e.g., political and cultural groups), relationship between student participation in activities and their perceptions of campus social environment points to the possibility that student group leaders and activists become more critical of institutional social environment than their peers. Given their extensive knowledge of and exposure to issues and problems on campus, stu28

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dent leaders may also be motivated to actively involved in student organizations to change and improve the campus environment. Fourth, the differential perceptions on campus social environment and gains in multicultural learning associated with different characteristics of students highlight the challenges facing the higher education community aiming at achieving the noble goals of diversity and multiculturalism on campus. For instance, since the study showed the positive connection between perceptions on campus environment and gains in multicultural competence, the African American group’s less positive perceptions on the environment should raise concerns about the outcomes of their multicultural learning. Also, while it is heartening to see a strong female presence in volunteer and community service activities, educators should have every reason to be concerned with the whereabouts of their male counterparts. The major limitation of this study lies in its lack of control over students’ precollege disposition on participating in activities. Although we controlled for an extensive set of student characteristics variables and socioeconomic status, we do not have the information on student personality types and their precollege experience regarding their involvement in various activities. In addition, students at different stages of college career might differ in terms of their perceptions, participation, multicultural attitudes, and behaviors. It would be valuable to replicate the path model at the different time points to further understand the connection between the college activities and multicultural learning. Another major area of limitation is that the multicultural learning gains are all based on students’ self-reporting, which can be subjective and capricious at times and subject to the influences of undeterminable factors. Finally, this is a single institution study. Given the institutionally unique characteristics of private, residential, selective, and of the traditional-age student body, cautions need to be assumed to generalize the results to other institution settings.

Implications While important strides have been made to develop inventories to measure multicultural competence, successful application of these research designs to the undergraduate population is rare. Two possible

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reasons contribute to the lack of empirical studies in this area: first, most extant inventories are designed to measure multicultural competence of certain professionals rather than undergraduate students (see Ponterotto, Rieger, Barrett, & Sparks, 1994); and second, the adaptation of these inventories is difficult due to both the length of the instruments and their lack of institution-specific variables. To overcome these difficulties, we used institutional research data with items clearly identified as the core skills that students need to learn to competently participate in a diverse society. The institutional survey also allowed access to the status of student participation in college activities and their perceptions of campus environment. Unlike most previous studies that adopted binary yes/no questions or frequencies of engagement in extracurricular activities as the proxy for the level of involvement, this study examined various degrees of student involvement in certain college activities and how different levels of involvement linked to student satisfaction with institutional social environment and gains related to multicultural competence. The use of institutional data is not just methodological; it has great practical implications. Given the “dramatic evidence of the impact of the demographic landscape on university and college programming from student activities to residential learning communities” (HowardHamilton, Richardson, & Shuford, 1998, p. 6), student affairs administrators need to find a way to assess the relevance of their existing student activity programming and its effectiveness in promoting multicultural learning. The research design of this study demonstrates the feasibility of this approach, and the findings provide guidance and support for the infusion of multicultural programs and other existing student groups and activities on campus. Responding to the call for linking institutional practices and processes to important cognitive and noncognitive outcomes (Pascarella, 2001), the current study contributes to our understanding of multicultural competence from the action process of what students actually do to learn. This study supports much of the previous research on the educational value of college activities—for example, participating in college activities hones students’ social and leadership skills, including multicultural competence, thus getting students involved in the activities becomes an essential step. For groups of students who

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are less prone to such involvement, institutions should craft programs to target those groups. College social environment is a fertile ground that fosters student development in many dimensions, including their skills in dealing with people from diverse backgrounds. Therefore, to promote student learning and development in multicultural competence, educators need to ensure a supportive, diversity-friendly environment that creates opportunities to bring together students from different backgrounds. One lesson learned through this study is that, though participating in activities and having positive views on campus social environment are both associated with multicultural learning, participation does not necessarily lead to positive views on environment, and vice versa. This finding should serve as a reminder to the researchers and administrators who assume a necessary connection between the two. In other words, while advising student groups and providing financial support to their events, administrators should be realistic enough to know that certain activities do not directly lead to a better multicultural environment on campus. In addition, given that students of different characteristics vary in terms of their propensity to participate in certain college activities, educators should make conscious efforts to encourage students to get involved in a wide range of groups and activities through policies and practices.

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Appendix A Relevant Items in the Survey Instrument

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Appendix A (continued)

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Appendix B Descriptive Statistics of Student Level of Involvement in Extracurricular Activities

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Appendix C Descriptive Statistics of Student Self-Reported Gains and Perception of Campus Social Environment

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Appendix D Student Background Characteristics

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