Perceptual & Motor Skills: Perception 2014, 118, 3, 1-15. © Perceptual & Motor Skills 2014
CORPORAL ARTISTIC TRAINING INFLUENCES ATTENTION: A PILOT STUDY1 MÔNICA MEDEIROS RIBEIRO Department of Photography, Theatre and Cinema, School of Fine Arts
ISABELA LIMA AND LEANDRO MALLOY-DINIZ Laboratory of Neuropsychological and Clinical Investigations National Institute of Science and Technology in Molecular Medicine
GUILHERME LAGE
LUCIA GOUVÊA PIMENTEL
Department of Physical Education
Department of Fine Arts, School of Fine Arts
ANTÔNIO LÚCIO TEIXEIRA Department of Internal Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil Summary.—This study assessed the effect of the Body Rhythmics (BRIM) on actors' attentional processes. BRIM is a combination of exercises using numbers and rules that enact musical parameters in the moving body through displacements. Male actors (N = 22) participated in the study: 7 in the BRIM (Study) group and 15 in the Control group (groups were equivalent on mean Raven's IQ). The Continuous Performance Test (CPT–II) was administered before and after an intensive period of BRIM training. There was no significant difference on the CPT–II before training. Group results for before vs after training showed a significant difference for reaction time for the Study group. There was also a trend to increased errors of commission in the Study group after BRIM training.
Schellenberg (2004) claimed that music education promotes the cognitive capacity of its practitioners. However, the results are controversial as some studies indicated transitory cognitive effects (Costa-Giomi, 1999), while others indicated permanent cognitive effects (Hetland, 2000; Rauscher & Zupan, 2000) in children. In adult professional musicians, it was found that the practice of music produced positive long-term effects on visual-spatial capacity, most likely generated by a more efficient attentional process (Brochard, Dufour, & Després, 2004). Although a few studies have shown the long-term effects of practicing music, it would be interesting to perform
Address correspondence to Mônica Medeiros Ribeiro, Department of Photography, Theatre and Cinema, School of Fine Arts, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Av. Presidente Antônio Carlos, n⬚6627, Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil CEP31270901 or e-mail (
[email protected]). This work was supported by Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico-CNPq, Brazil. 1
DOI 10.2466/24.22.PMS.118k21w2
ISSN 0031-5125
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more longitudinal studies comparing the effects of learning music on musicians to show its long-term effects. Brazilian theater groups have developed physical training methods using corporal training proposals originating in the fields of music, dance, and theater.2 The Oficcina Multimedia Group (Grupo Oficcina Multimédia; GOM) is one such group, and its director/musician works from a musical conception to create shows. Actors are prepared for scenes through the practice of Body Rhythmics (BRIM). BRIM is a combination of exercises using numbers and rules that comprise musical parameters (of time and intensity) in the moving body through displacements, use of materials, and body tones. However, unlike Jaques Dalcroze's Eurhythmics, BRIM is usually performed with the intention of maintaining attention in the present moment of the action and not as a training of music education (Ribeiro, 2010). BRIM is a corporal training developed by Ione de Medeiros between 1970 and 19903 that aims to improve motor coordination and movement harmony in relation with space and time through displacements mediated by rhythmic steps. The movement of walking through space, either freely or in certain directions in a previously established manner, is accompanied by clapping, the use of percussive instruments, and turning, squatting, and other movements that use body and sound to accentuate the particular beat of the proposed rhythmic structure. Initially, BRIM was used in children's music lessons. BRIM has many similarities with Jaques-Dalcroze's Eurhythmics, which can be perceived through shared principles (Ribeiro, 2012). Specificities of BRIM include its application to the corporal training of actors and its mode of structural organization. Over time, it became part of the body training of GOM actors. Medeiros posited that rhythmic exercise through body movement is an opportunity to experience the relationship with spatiotemporal structures, enabling an increased awareness of movement, kinesthetics, and the sustained attention desired during a performance of a scene. During BRIM, it is necessary to maintain and continuously update motor planning and attention. Expectation precedes the moment when the perception of an auditory or visual stimulus occurs. However, the stimulus sometimes is not as expected and comes as a surprise. This is due to the characteristic of the continuous BRIM variation, which demands that responses must be updated in the face of new stimuli. The theoretical relationship between cognition and corporal exercise in BRIM makes it a suitable model to test possible cognitive and motor effects resulting from artistic practice, as has been done with Jaques2 Grupo Galpão (www.grupogalpao.com.br/); Grupo Lume (www.lumeteatro.com.br); Grupo Oficcina Multimédia (http://oficcinamultimedia.com.br/v2/).
See the video at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iLh6K4r-3Xg&feature=youtu.be.
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Dalcroze's Eurhythmics (Brown, Sherril, & Gench, 1981; Boyarsky, 1989; Trombetti, Hars, Hermann, Kressing, Ferrari, & Rizzoli, 2011). Damásio (1996) asserted that cognition, as knowledge construction, depends on several systems located in various regions of the brain, whose activities are brought together in the form of images—neural patterns—that will later be developed through attention and working memory to perform interactive actions with the environment. Attention is a complex type of perceptual processing. It cannot be thought of as only being aware or not aware, but as a continuum. Attention is a function that selects sensory stimuli of interest at a given time. It is said that attention overlaps with perception and memory, comprising interrelated processes that form the foundation of cognitive performance (Eysenck & Keane, 2007). BRIM attentional experience is consistent with hybrid processing, both bottom-up and top-down. This is because, in addition to being aware of any new stimulus from the task's environment, the individual works with the conscious control of attention to organizing auditory, visual, and kinesthetic demands, as well as the demands of emotions and memories. Furthermore, Berthoz and Petit (2006) pointed out that attention must be understood as an expression of intention anchored in action, which implies top-down mechanisms indicating that the brain projects its pre-perceptions on the world. In the first half of the 20th century, the relationship between art and knowledge began to be studied more specifically in the context of academic research (Eisner, 2002; Dewey, 2005; Gazzaniga, 2008), interrelating emotions and feelings with several cognitive faculties. More recently, experiments have investigated the association between artistic practice and cognition in the context of dance (Calvo-Merino, Jola, Glaser, & Haggard, 2008; Grafton & Cross, 2008), music (Parente & O'Malley, 1975; Huf, Parker, Corbo, & Stevens, 1996; Derri, Tsapakidou, Zachopoulou, & Ginki, 2001; Peretz & Zatorre, 2005; Thaut, Demartin, & Sanes, 2008; Angel, Polzella, & Elvers, 2010; Hallam, 2010), and art (Predock-Linnell, 1987; Taylor, 1992). Studies on dance have mainly focused on perception, memory, and mental motor image and how they are associated with execution, creation, and pleasure (Solso, 2001; Sutton, 2005; Brown, Martinez, & Parsons, 2006; Cross, Hamilton, & Grafton, 2006; Brown & Parsons, 2008; Blässing, Puttke, & Schack, 2010). We found no experimental studies on rhythmic practice through body movement within the scope of body training for actors, although associating the perception of rhythm by body movement was already being emphasized at the end of the 19th century by artists such as Mathis Lussy, Theodor Lipps, and Émile Jaques-Dalcroze (Retra, 2006; Egil, 2008; Leman, 2008). A few studies on theater teaching have examined the association between actors' cognition and training, such as Meyerhold's Biomechanics, Grotowski's corporal exercises, and Barbas' training (Hodge, 2000; Blair, 2008). Studying the cognitive effects of actors' corporal training is important given the
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need to update teaching methods after recent discoveries in cognitive science. These cognitive effects can be seen in reaction time, working memory, and attention. Jaques-Dalcroze's Eurhythmics is an example of the proposed body practice, i.e., continuously evaluated by systematic observations related to cognitive demands. It is a combination of exercises of rhythmic music education experienced in the moving body created at the beginning of the 20th century (Jaques-Dalcroze, 1921; McCarthy, 1993). Its promoter believed that musical rhythm should be thought of in terms of body movement, to reduce the distance between conception and motor response to musical stimuli. With the worldwide dissemination of his bodywork proposal, Jaques-Dalcroze became an important reference for actors studying how to prepare their bodies for their scenes (Conners Lee, 2003). His ideas had a profound effect on Brazilian theater director and musician Ione de Medeiros, who developed BRIM. The aim of this study is to assess the effect of BRIM on actors' attentional processes. Hypothesis. BRIM will positively influence the attention of actors who perform it. METHOD Participants Twenty-two actors participated in this study. The control group comprised 15 current and former students from the theater graduate program of the Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), who had no previous experience with BRIM and who had declared their availability and interest in participating in the study. This group consisted of 15 men (M age = 25.3 yr., SD = 3.5) with 2 yr. of experience in corporal artistic training like contemporary and modern dance, Barbas' training, and Brazilianbased corporal training such as the Capoeira (Hodge, 2000). The study group comprised seven actors from the Oficcina Multimedia Group (GOM, established 1977), who also had declared their availability and interest in participating in the study. The group's mean age was 24.0 yr., (SD = 6.4), with 5.0 yr. (SD = 3.7) of daily BRIM practice for 30 min., five times a week. The GOM4 is an experimental theater group of the Foundation of Art Education, Belo Horizonte (Brazil) that works to integrate artistic expression (dance, theater, music, and visual arts) in the composition of their performances. After 1983, the GOM introduced a corporeal training routine to the group's research process. BRIM is part of the GOM actors’ daily training. Measures Intelligence.—The participants responded to a computerized version of Raven’s Progressive Matrices test (Raven's), a general intelligence test 4
www.oficcinamultimedia.com.br
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that assesses perceptive, observational, and logical reasoning skills by having the subject find missing figures in a presented series (Raven, 2000). It was administered to ensure that the participant groups did not differ significantly with respect to IQ and, as inclusion criteria, that the sample's mean IQ was in line with the norms for the Brazilian population. The test was administered only once, before the first administration of CPT–II in both groups. Attention.—Conners' Continuous Performance Test (CPT–II) is a neuropsychological instrument used to investigate vigilance/attention control and response inhibition, which are measured by irregular presentation of target stimulus (Conners, 2000). The CPT–II, a go/no-go task, also calculates reaction time and is considered an instrument for the evaluation of cognitive efficiency. The CPT–II is a test commonly used to diagnose ADHD in children. According to Conners (2000), the test is a 14-min. computerized measure of inhibitory control, sustained attention, vigilance, reaction time, and response variability. Zabel, Thomsen, Cole, Martin, and Mahone (2009, p. 2) stated that the CPT–II, although commonly used as a clinical screening device, is also used for monitoring treatment effectiveness and as “a research instrument for detecting changes in attention and neurocognitive status.” Therefore, this test was used as a research tool to study the effects of a "treatment.” In this case, BRIM was considered a "treatment," and the CPT–II was applied before and after it. The CPT–II had already been used in studies with healthy, non-ADHD subjects (Schretlen, Testa, Winick, Pearlson, & Gordon, 2008; Bryant, 2013), as it assesses attention and inhibitory response and sustenance of attention. The X Type CPT was used, in which several letters appear quickly, one at a time, or at relatively short intervals. The participant must press the space bar on the keyboard at the appearance of every letter, except when the letter is X. The CPT–II was administered to both the groups twice: the study group was administered once before the training and again after the training, whereas, the control group was administered the second time 55 days after the first administration. Among the parameters provided by the X Type CPT, the current study focused on three parameters: omission errors (produced by the lack of response to the target stimulus), commission errors (produced by answers given to non-targets), and hit reaction time (the average response time for all correct target hits over the test administration). These measured and analyzed the participant's ability to sustain attention and respond quickly to stimuli. The CPT–II was administered on a desktop computer, which was not strictly designated for this study. Thus, errors that are specific to computerized measures may have affected the results (Cernich, Brennana, Baker, & Bleiberg, 2007).
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All participants read and signed a written informed consent according to the regulations of the Committee of Ethics and Research of the UFMG (ETIC n°-0253.0.203.000-10). Procedure Participants completed a questionnaire before the Raven's test, which was followed by the CPT–II. The questionnaire obtained basic information about the level of education, profession, corporal practices, relationship with music, mood at the time of the test, and use of medications. The tests were taken in a quiet environment, in the sole presence of the interviewer. The GOM actors had abstained from practicing BRIM for 3 mo. before entering the study. Forty-five days after the first evaluation, the Study group was subjected to intensive BRIM training. For 10 consecutive days, they performed daily BRIM practice for 50 min. After the last BRIM training, the study group was given the CPT–II again. The BRIM training included continuous exercises and variations. The training was divided into three kinds of exercises. The first, called Preparatory Exercises for the Practice, consisted of repeated procedures with variations, accompanied by motor and sound interferences not necessarily in time with the beat. There can be displacement in the space, forming circles or lines, or moving freely. They are exercises structured to work on free initiative and rapid response through collective games. The free initiative exercises propose working on choice, decision, organization, and freedom skills through modes of walking, speed variation, and varying leadership with the appearance of collective leadership, and exercising communication between the participants. The rapid response exercises demand an immediate response to an external stimulus. The participant must respond deliberately to a stimulus and even choose between more than one possible answer. All these exercises are established through previously agreedupon rules. From thereon, musical parameters of duration and intensity with rhythmic groupings and rhythmic forms are tapped. In the rhythmic groupings exercises, there are temporal organizations of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or more beats through steps and claps and with previously organized sound or motor interferences. These interferences can be multiple and simultaneous, e.g., asking the group to make a sound on a beat, clap their hands together, rotate, and emit the same sound in a third group beat. In rhythmic forms, musical forms such as the rondo (AB/AC/AD), the lied (ABA/ABA), canons (A/B), and composite structures (ABA/ACA/ADA) are freely adapted. The practice's conductor presents a pre-established form with organized interferences and even more complex dislocations predetermining direction changes and executing various designs in the space. In this way, BRIM works with perception and execution of musical beats, speeds, accents, and groupings.
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The training performed consisted of various exercises with these characteristics, as can be seen in the links provided in the Appendix. BRIM training cannot be standardized in terms of the duration of each variation of an original exercise because a practice's conductor does not define the duration in advance. Furthermore, the time of permanence spent on exercise depends on both the execution capacity of the participants and the decision-making of the coordinator to propose a new variation. The conductor has the freedom to effect change through new rhythmic-motor arrangements when they consider them appropriate. It was, thus, decided that each day of BRIM training would have a total duration of 50 min. The exercises, the number of repetitions of each exercise, and the duration of each exercise was not previously agreed upon. It is important to emphasize that preparatory, groupings, and rhythmic form exercises were conducted as detailed above. The control group continued practicing on their own in corporal artistic training, which was customary for them. After 55 days, the control group was given the CPT–II again. Analysis The study first compared the results of the control group with those of the Study group to assess whether BRIM practice has a long-term effect on the attention of its practitioners. The Mann–Whitney U test was applied to the two independent samples. The study also compared the study group's results before and after the intensive training to assess whether BRIM generates an attentional effect shortly after its practice and also compared the results of the controls at the beginning of the experiment and after 55 days. The Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test was applied to the dependent samples. Effect size was calculated using Cohen's formula (1988). Subsequently, a new statistical analysis was performed with random data resampling (random data permutation) Bootstrapping Statistical Analysis using RT4Win software (see details in Edgington & Onghena, 2007) to partly address the small sample size and increase the robustness of the results. There is no precise and definite minimal number of subjects to run bootstrapping. For instance, Chernick (2007) describes that if the sample size is very small, e.g., four participants, the bootstrap may not work because the set of possible bootstrap samples is not rich enough. An independent t test was used to reassess the results between the two groups, and a dependent t test was used to compare the averages of the study group before and after the intervention. The number of re-samples from the original data was equal to 1,000, and the level of significance was .05 in all analyses. RESULTS All the participants scored within the Raven's reference norms for the Brazilian population, with a mean score of 47.12 (SD = 7.4) (Raven,1977).
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No significant difference was found between the Study and Control groups (p = .68) when comparing mean raw scores: Control group, 55 (range = 40–60), and Study group, 56 (range = 48–57). The mean Z score was 0.85 in the Control group and 1.04 in the Study group. The percentage mean of correct answers was 89.2% in the Control group and 91.43% in the Study group. After comparing the Study and Control groups’ results for the different measures of CPT–II before the training, no significant differences were observed (Table 1). The comparisons between groups did not show significant differences in omission errors (Z = 0.10, p = .91), commission errors (Z = 0.52, p = .59), or reaction time (Z = 0.74, p = .45). Table 2 shows that no significant differences were observed after the training either: omission errors (Z = 0.88, p = .37), commission errors (Z = 1.30, p = .19), and reaction time (Z = 0.74, p = .24). TABLE 1 COMPARISON OF CPT–II SCORES BETWEEN CONTROL AND STUDY GROUPS IN CONTINUOUS PERFORMANCE TEST BEFORE AND AFTER BRIM TRAINING Parameters
Control Group Mdn Min.–Max.
M
Study Group SD
Mdn Min.–Max.
M
SD
Effect p* Size
Before BRIM training Omission errors Commission errors
1
0–24
2.8
6.0
1
0–10
2.0
3.8
0
14
3–27
14.5
6.1
11
3–23
13.1
6.9
1.98 .59
342.6
327.1– 466.0
366.4 51.8
–0.19 .45
Reaction 333.2 time, msec.
297.4– 404.9
349.6 44.9
.91
After BRIM training Omission errors Commission errors
2
0–13
7
15.5
0
0–26
4.5
9.5
0.15 .37
11
0–28
12
8.0
19
7–29
17.7
9.1
–0.92 .19
329.2
280.9– 377.3
333.5 36.4
0.15 .24
Reaction 337.5 time, msec.
272.2– 505.6
356.5 61.9
*Mann–Whitney U Test.
The comparison of changes in groups’ scores before vs after training did not show any significant differences on the CPT–II measures (Table 2): omission errors (Control: Z = 1.22, p = .22; Study: Z = 0.52, p = .60); commission errors (Control: Z = 1.60, p = .10; Study: Z = 1.52, p = .12); reaction time (Control: Z = 0.56, p = .57; Study: Z = 1.85, p = .06). Considering the small sample size and the study groups’ tendency toward a decrease in reaction time after training (p = .06), a new data analysis
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CORPORAL ARTISTIC TRAINING TABLE 2 CONTINUOUS PERFORMANCE TEST (CPT–II) RESULTS IN STUDY AND CONTROL GROUPS BEFORE AND AFTER BRIM TRAINING Parameters
Before Training Mdn Min.–Max.
After Training
M
SD
Mdn Min.–Max.
M
SD
Effect Size
p*
Before BRIM training Omission errors
1
0–24
2.8
6.0
2
0–13
7
15.5
0.13 .22
Commission errors
14
3–27
14.5
6.1
11
0–28
12
8.0
–0.98 .10
Reaction time, msec.
333.2
297.4– 404.9
349.6
44.9
337.5
272.2– 505.6
356.5 61.9
0.29 .57
1
0–10
2
3.8
0
0–26
4.5
9.5
0.13 .60
11
3–23
13.1
6.9
19
7–29
17.7
9.1
–0.98 .12
366.4
51.8
329.2
280.9– 377.3
333.5 36.4
0.29 .06
After BRIM training Omission errors Commission errors
Reaction 327.1– 342.6 time, msec. 466 *Wilcoxon Signed-rank Test.
using a bootstrapped analysis was performed. The results of the comparison between the groups before training remained unchanged for all measures using the bootstrapping: omission errors (t = 0.03, p = .59), commission errors (t = –0.32, p = .64), and reaction time (t = –0.77, p = .77). The results of the comparison between the groups after training remains also unchanged for all measures: omission errors (t = 0.37, p = .47), commission errors (t = –0.96, p = .82), and reaction time (t = 0.89, p = .18). The comparison between results of the Control group at the beginning of the experiment and after 55 days did not present any significant difference using the bootstrapping: omission errors (t = –1.01, p = .78), commission errors (t = –1.80, p = .96), and reaction time (t = –0.66, p = .72). The comparison between results of the Study group at the beginning of the experiment and after 55 days did not also present any significant difference to omission errors (t = –0.71, p = .65) and commission errors (t = –1.58, p = .17). The difference in reaction time between preand post-training of the Study group was significant (t = 2.55, p = .04). DISCUSSION The BRIM is closely related to Jaques-Dalcroze's Eurhythmics, with both derived from the field of music. One of the theoretical objectives of Jaques-Dalcroze's Eurhythmics is to improve the attention of its practitioners (Jaques-Dalcroze, 1921). Medeiros (2010) also claims to maintain practitioners' attention during training. It was hypothesized that BRIM
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would be associated with higher attentional capacity in the Study group than in a non-practicing Control group. However, there were no differences in the performance between the two groups as measured by the CPT–II at the beginning of the study, suggesting that prior BRIM training does not seem to impart sustained improvement of attention in its practitioners. The potential benefits of BRIM were observed in the current results only after intensive training. There was a decrease in reaction time, i.e., the interval between the stimulus and the onset of rhythmic motor response (Magill, 2000). The perceived change in reaction time suggests that the actors understood and responded to the information more readily than they did prior to training. A decrease in reaction time during BRIM training correlates with a condition called “body readiness” in the performing arts (Ramos, 2011). This condition is related to the ability to produce rapid body responses to environmental stimuli. In the field of body studies in the performing arts, the ability to respond quickly to stimuli and consciously choosing one of the possible responses to the environment can be considered a determining factor for stage acting. A positive effect of BRIM on sustained and selective attention could allow participants to improve their choreographic creation experience. However, there are other attention modalities that may be of interest: divided, toggled, and motor attention. There was a trend, with large effect size, toward increased errors of commission in the study group after BRIM training. If BRIM produces acceleration in response speed, through spontaneous reactions or “mechanized” responses, with less analytic cognitive processing, then a reduction in reaction time might derive from an increase in impulsive action and an increase in errors of response anticipation, rather than a cognitive gain. It could be that response anticipation may be priming action as an effect of BRIM learning, i.e., there is a speed/accuracy trade-off (Schmidt & Lee, 2011). One could interpret the apparent decrease in reaction time as a simple effect of warm-up from physical action; however, no variables referring to a change of this nature were measured, and BRIM exercises lack the features of exercises that promote warm-up. A learning effect on the CPT–II must also be considered. Leark, Wallace, and Fitzgerald (2004) have indicated that re-administering the CPT at a 1-wk. interval is reliable for children, and Soreni, Crosbie, Ickowicz, and Schachar (2009) reported test-retest reliability with 15-day intervals for children. However, Zabel, et al. (2009) proposed that the optimum time period between test and retest of CPT–II for young adults should be 3 mo., due to the possibility of a learning effect. In the current study, an experiment with a theater group, the protocol of the experimental design had to be relaxed to adapt it to the conditions imposed by the professional
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work of the participants. This led to the retest 55 days after the CPT–II's first application. GOM has a busy schedule, and its members devote their time to many events, which prevented their easy availability for this research. Nevertheless, the retest in the Control group showed no statistically significant differences, so there may have been no learning effect in either group. However, due to the possibility of varied interpretations of the data, more research is needed. There was no intention to conduct an exactly replicable experiment: rather, it was meant as a pilot assessment of an application of a training technique—for GOM, a timely and unique dataset. It is common in art research for the results not necessarily to be intended for re-application in other studies, but of course they may shed some light on measures and procedures as a particular type of real-world application. Performing this type of experiment in the scope of artistic corporal training with healthy, professional participants, in the context of a theater group, is a first step in trying to establish an interdisciplinary and collaborative program between art and science. This study has some limitations that should be mentioned. The test employed may not have been sensitive enough to detect the relevant cognitive changes. The tests commonly used to assess attention, including the CPT–II, are usually used with individuals with cognitive symptoms or disorders, and most of them are designed to evaluate visual attention. In BRIM, not only visual but also hearing and motor attention are involved. Therefore, to further elucidate the attentional effect of this training, other attentional modalities could be evaluated. The second major limitation was the small sample size of the study, which clearly limited the statistical power. This is a situation that occurs in real-world research, where the entire population (GOM) is tested but the sample is still small. To overcome this limitation, the inferential power was bolstered using a bootstrapped analysis. Other limitations could be mentioned, e.g., only men were tested, and there was no test of divided, toggled, or motor attention, which all may be relevant. This study assessed the effect of corporal artistic training in GOM actors’ attentional processing. It also provided some tantalizing partial support for Jacques-Dalcroze's (1921) conclusions about the effects of rhythm experience using movement. Conclusions drawn from systematic observations, still frequent in performing arts research, should be seriously considered, not assumed to be potentially biased speculation. In performing arts, it is essential to investigate the transient and permanent effects that this and other corporal artistic training might induce in the cognitions of their practitioners. This would improve the methodological designs of actors' corporal training.
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M. M. RIBEIRO, ET AL. REFERENCES
ANGEL, L., POLZELLA, D. J., & ELVERS, G. C. (2010) Background music and cognitive performance. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 110(3), 1059-1064. BERTHOZ, A., & PETIT, J. (2006) Phénoménologie et physiologie de l' action [The Physiology and Phenomenology of Action]. Paris: Odile Jacob. BLAIR, R. (2008) The actor, image, and action: acting and cognitive neuroscience. New York: Routledge. BLÄSSING, B., PUTTKE, M., & SCHACK, T. (Eds.) (2010) The neurocognition of dance: mind, movement and motor skills. New York: Psychology Press. BOYARSKY, T. L. (1989) Dalcroze Eurhythmics: an approach to early training of the nervous system. Seminars in Neurology, 9(2), 105-114. BROCHARD, R., DUFOUR, A., & DESPRÉS, O. (2004) Effect of musical expertise on visuospatial abilities: evidence from reaction times and mental imagery. Brain and Cognition, 54, 103-109. BROWN, J., SHERRILL, C., & GENCH, B. (1981) Effects of an integrated physical education/ music program in changing early childhood perceptual-motor performance. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 53(1), 151-154. BROWN, S., MARTINEZ, M. J., & PARSONS, L. (2006) The neural basis of human dance. Cerebral Cortex, 16(8), 1157-1167. BROWN, S., & PARSONS, L. M. (2008) The neuroscience of dance: recent brain-imaging studies reveal some of the complex neural choreography behind our ability to dance. Scientific American, 299(1), 78-83. BRYANT, K. (2013) The effects of earlier school start times on cognition and sleep in children ages 7–10. Undergraduate Review, 9, 16-23. CALVO-MERINO, B., JOLA, C., GLASER, D. E., & HAGGARD, P. (2008) Towards a sensorimotor aesthetics of performing art. Consciousness and Cognition, 17, 911-922. CERNICH, A. N., BRENNANA, D. M., BARKER, L. M., & BLEIBERG, J. (2007) Sources of error in computerized neuropsychological assessment. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 22(1), S39-S48. CHERNICK, M. R. (2007) Bootstrap methods: a guide for practioners and researchers. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. COHEN, J. (1988) Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. CONNERS, C. K. (2000) Conners' Continuous Performance Test. Toronto, Canada: MultiHealth Systems. CONNERS LEE, J. W. (2003) Jaques-Dalcroze by any other name: eurhythmics in early modern theatre and dance. Unpublished master's thesis in Fine Arts, Theatre Arts, Graduate Faculty of the Univer. of Texas., Austin, TX. COSTA-GIOMI, E. (1999) The effects of three years of piano instruction on children's cognitive development. Journal of Research in Music Education, 47, 198-212. CROSS, E. S., HAMILTON, A. F. C., & GRAFTON, S. T. (2006) Building a motor simulation de novo: observation of dance by dancers. NeuroImage, 31(3), 1257-1267. DAMÁSIO, A. R. (1996) O erro de Descartes: emoção, razão e o cérebro [Descartes’ error: emotion, reason, and the human brain]. São Paulo, Brazil: Companhia das Letras. DERRI, V., TSAPAKIDOU, A., ZACHOPOULOU, E., & GINKI, V. (2001) Complexity of rhythmic ability as measured in preschool children. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 92(3), 777-785. DEWEY, J. (2005) Art as experience. New York: Perigee. (Original published in 1934)
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EDGINGTON, E. S., & ONGHENA, P. (2007) Randomization tests. Boca Raton, FL: Chapman & Hall/CRC. EGIL, H. (2008) Correspondence between music and body. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Musicology, University of Oslo, Norway. Accessed 10 January 2011 at http://urn.nb.no/URN:NBN:no-20848. EISNER, E. (2002) The arts and the creation of mind. New Haven, CT: Yale Univer. Press. EYSENCK, M. W., & KEANE, M. T. (2007) Manual de psicologia cognitiva [Cognitive psychology: a student's handbook]. Porto Alegre, Brazil: Artmed. GAZZANIGA, M. (ED.) (2008) Learning, arts and the brain: the Dana Consortium Report on Arts and Cognition. New York: Dana Press. GRAFTON, S., & CROSS, E. (2008) Dance and the brain. In M. Gazzaniga (Ed.), Learning, arts, and the brain: the Dana Consortium Report on Arts and Cognition. New York: Dana Press. Pp. 61-70. HALLAM, S. (2010) The power of music: its impact on the intellectual, social and personal development of children and young people. International Journal of Music Education, 28(3), 269-289. HETLAND, L. (2000) Learning to make music enhances spatial reasoning. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 34, 179-238. HODGE, A. (Ed.) (2000) Twentieth-century actor training. London, UK: Routledge. HUF, P. A., PARKER, S. P., CORBO, M. P., & STEVENS, K. M. (1996) Effect of music training on monaural perception of pitch and rhythm. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 82(3), 843-851. JAQUES-DALCROZE, E. (1921) Rhythm, music and education. London, UK: Chato & Windus. LEARK, R. A., WALLACE, D. R., & FITZGERALD, R. (2004) Test-retest reliability and standard error of measurement for the Test of Variables of Attention (T.O.V.A.) with healthy school-age children. Assessment, 11(4), 285-289. LEMAN, M. (2008) Embodied music cognition and mediation technology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. MAGILL, R. A. (2000) Aprendizagem motora: conceitos e aplicações [Motor learning and control: concepts and applications]. São Paulo, Brazil: Edgard Blücher; Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. MCCARTHY, M. (1993) The birth of internationalism in music education 1899–1938. International Journal of Music Education, 21(1), 3-15. MEDEIROS, I. (2010) Entrevista concedida a Mônica Medeiros Ribeiro [Interview given to the author]. Belo Horizonte, Brasil, 8 de junho de 2010 a. PARENTE, J. A., & O'MALLEY, J. J. (1975) Training in musical rhythm and field dependence of children. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 40, 392-394. PERETZ, I., & ZATORRE, R. J. (2005) Brain organization for music processing. Annual Reviews of Psychology, 56, 89-114. PREDOCK-LINNELL, E. (1987) Comparison of Barron-Welsh art scores of artists and nonartists and between dancers of two training styles. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 65, 729-730. RAMOS, E. (2011) Um corpo musical [The musical body]. O Percevejo, 3(1). Accessed online 20 January 2012 at http://www.seer.unirio.br/index.php/opercevejoon line/article/view/1790. RAUSCHER, F. H., & ZUPAN, M. A. (2000) Classroom keyboard instruction improves kindergarten children's spatial-temporal performance: a field experiment. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 15, 215-228.
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RAVEN, J. C. (1977) Teste das Matrizes Progressivas Escala Geral-Manual.—Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Centro Editor de Psicologia Aplicada (CEPA). RAVEN, J. C. (2000) Matrizes progressivas: escala geral [Raven's Progressive Matrices]. São Paulo, Brazil: Casa do Psicólogo. RETRA, J. (2006) Aspects of musical movement representation in Dutch early childhood music education. In M. Baroni, A. R. Addessi, R. Caterina, & M. Costa (Eds.), Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Music Perception and Cognition, Alama Mater Studiorum, Univer. of Bologna, Italy. Pp. 1251-1256. RIBEIRO, M. M. (2010) Aspectos afetivos da prática de Rítmica Corporal do grupo Oficcina Multimédia/Brasil [Affective aspects of Grupo Oficcina Multimédia Body Rhythmics]. Karpa Journal of Theatricalities and Visual Culture, Summer Issue, 3.2. Accessed online at http://www.calstatela.edu/misc/karpa//Karpa3.2/Site%20Folder/index. html. RIBEIRO, M. M. (2012) Corpo, afeto e cognição na rítmica corporal de Ione de Medeiros: entrelaçamento entre ensino de arte e ciências cognitivas [Body, affection and cognition in Ione de Medeiros's body rhythmics: interconnections between teaching in art and cognitive science]. Unpublished master's thesis in arts, Graduate of Escola de Belas Artes, Univer. Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil. SCHELLENBERG, E. G. (2004) Music lessons enhance IQ. Psychological Science, 15(8), 511514. SCHMIDT, R., & LEE, T. (2011) Motor control and learning: a behavioral emphasis. (5th ed.) Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. SCHRETLEN, D. J., TESTA, S. M., WINICK, J. M., PEARLSON, G. D., & GORDON, B. (2008) Frequency and bases of abnormal performance by healthy adults on neuoropsychological testing. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 14(3), 436-445. SOLSO, R. L. (2001) Brain activities in a skilled versus a novice artist: an fMRI study. Leonardo, 34, 31-34. SORENI, N., CROSBIE, J., ICKOWICZ, A., & SCHACHAR, R. (2009) Stop signal and Conners' Continuous Performance tasks: test-retest reliability of two inhibition measures in ADHD children. Journal of Attention Disorders, 13(2), 137-143. SUTTON, J. (2005) Moving and thinking together in dance. In S. McKechnie & R. Grove (Eds.), Thinking in four dimensions. Melbourne, Australia: Melbourne Univer. Publishing. Pp. 50-56. TAYLOR, R. (1992) Art training and the Rey figure. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 74, 1105-1106. THAUT, M. H., DEMARTIN, M., & SANES, J. N. (2008) Brain networks for integrative rhythm formation. PLoS One, 3(5), e2312. TROMBETTI, A., HARS, M., HERMANN, F., KRESSING, R., FERRARI, S., & RIZZOLI, R. (2011) “Jaques-Dalcroze Eurhythmics” improves gait and prevents falls in the elderly. Revue Medicale Suisse, 7(299), 1305-1310. ZABEL, T. A., THOMSEN, C., COLE, C., MARTIN, R., & MAHONE, M. E. (2009) Reliability concerns in the repeated computerized assessment of attention in children. Clinical Neuropsychology, 23(7), 1213-1231. Accepted March 21, 2014.
CORPORAL ARTISTIC TRAINING APPENDIX
BRIM TRAINING VIDEOS Video 1: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_eeUZa1v2Dg (Visualização) Video 2: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pbo3YgVIzdE (Visualização) Video 3: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yCRAWgKO2dw (Visualização) Video 4: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vIZhdgm3B48&feature=youtu.be Video 5: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O72nNsFbTAQ (Visualização) Video 6: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bP9xB7y5mvg (Visualização) Video 7: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e77eVYHiDWw&feature=youtu.be Video 8: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U0Dz_DaT9Lc&feature=youtu.be Video 9: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PvJas45kpeg&feature=youtu.be Video 10: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UdyrEzFtHFc&feature=youtu.be
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