Contact Between Languages in Indonesia

“CONTACT BETWEEN LANGUAGES IN INDONESIA”

MARIA LEODORA

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE SCIENCES: SPEECH AND LANGUAGE SECTION

NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY June 2013

CONTACT BETWEEN LANGUAGES IN INDONESIA

INTRODUCTION With a population of more than 230 million,1 the Republic of Indonesia is the fourth most populous nation2 in the world (Paauw, 2009; CIA, 2013). It consists of over 17,000 islands, stretching along the equator between Southeast Asia and Australia (CIA, 2013), and has a significant number of distinct ethnic groups, speaking an estimated 700 plus languages3 (Lewis et al., 2013). As a linguistically diverse nation, the need to choose and develop a national language in Indonesia became apparent in the first decades of the twentieth century as “Indonesians began looking to the future and an end to more than three centuries of Dutch colonial rule” (Paauw, 2009). This choice was also one of the key tools for uniting the nation (Lowenberg, 1992; Paauw, 2009).

The Indonesian language, a variety of the Malay language, was proclaimed Indonesia’s national language4 while Indonesia was still a Dutch colony; it was proclaimed as the official language in 1945, at the time independence was declared (Lowenberg, 1992). Thomason (2001) once stated that, in a new, linguistically diverse nation, the selection and establishment of a single national language can be difficult and problematic. However, this seemed not to be the case for Indonesia as the nation is frequently cited for its population’s widespread acceptance of a single national 5

1

Based on the national census of 2010, the population of Indonesia was 237,641,326 (Indonesia Central Bureau of Statistics, 2010). 2 According to the Oxford Dictionary (2013), a nation is a large body of people united by common descent, history, culture, or language, inhabiting a particular state or territory. 3 Ethnologue 17th edition lists Indonesia as having 719 individual languages. Of these, 706 are living and 13 are extinct (Lewis et al., 2013). 4 During that period, three languages emerged as the potential official language for the new nation: Dutch, from the colonial language; Javanese, the language of the largest ethnic group in Indonesia, and Malay, which played the role of the historic lingua franca of the archipelago (Paauw, 2009). Malay was chosen as it was regarded as easy to learn and, most importantly, ethnically neutral for not being the first language of any prominent ethnic group (Lowenberg, 1992; Paauw, 2009). In 1928, Malay was adopted as the national language and renamed Bahasa Indonesia (the language of Indonesia) during the second meeting of the ‘all-Indonesia Youth Congress’ in Jakarta. 5

National language: Language in widespread and current use throughout a specific country or in parts of its territory, and often representative of the identity of its speakers. It may or may not have the status of an official language (OECD, 2002).

1

and official language6, with no major controversy over other local languages (Lowenberg, 1992). Indonesia’s national language policy has been called a ‘miraculous success’ (Woolard, 2000), and ‘perhaps even the most spectacular linguistic phenomenon of our age’ (Alisjahbana, 1962:1).7 Additionally, the campaign of the ‘good and correct Indonesian language’, by the language planners and language policy-makers, has spread intensely all over Indonesia to promote both national unity and identity (Lowenberg, 1992).

As a result, the majority of Indonesians are proficient in at least two languages, their local home language and Indonesian. Furthermore, in this multicultural and multilingual situation, contact between different languages is likely unavoidable. In such a context, this essay therefore attempts to discuss contact between languages in Indonesia, and the resulting outcomes. It will first present theories and studies on language contact, and will then present relevant examples based on previous studies and published research. The discussion of this essay will particularly focus on language shift and language maintenance as the effects of language contact.

CONTACT BETWEEN LANGUAGES IN INDONESIA Language8 Contact Weinreich (1953) states that, “two or more languages will be said to be in contact if they are used alternately by the same persons” (p.1). However, it may be said that “languages do not come into contact; people do” (Lin and Li, 2012:470). Furthermore, when speakers of one

6

Official language: A language that has legal status in a particular legally constituted political entity such as a State or part of a State, and that serves as a language of administration (OECD, 2002). 7 Paauw (2009) states that one of the factors behind this success is that Malay was not the language of a group which held political or economic dominance, and thus it was not viewed as a threat to the cultural identity of other ethnic groups. 8 According to Oxford dictionary (2013), a language is the method of human communication, either spoken or written, consisting of the use of words in a structured and conventional way.

2

language are exposed to another language over a sustained period of time, they will become bilingual.9

Thomason (2001:1) argues that language contact does not substantively require fluent bilingualism or multilingualism, but communication between speakers of different languages is necessary. There are many reasons for speakers of different languages to come into contact, whether by their own choice or force of circumstances (Wei, 2000:2). Language contact may occur with the languages used in the home, in the community, in school, in the mass media, and in people’s correspondence (Mackey, 1962:25); also, it may sometimes occur when there is increased social interaction between people from neighbouring territories who have traditionally spoken different languages (Mesthrie and Leap, 2009:242). Thomason (2001:2) also emphasises that speakers of two (or more) languages need not be in the same place for language contact to occur (for example, language contact through use of the mass media e.g. television, radio, etc., or sacred texts and other writings connected with religion).

Moreover, Mesthrie and Leap (2009:242) point out that language contact, as a subfield of sociolinguistics, is “essentially concerned with the outcomes for speakers and their languages when new languages are introduced into a speech community.” Multilingualism, diglossia, code-switching and borrowing are common sociolinguistic phenomena resulting from language contact. Mackey (1962:30-31) suggests that the consequences of language contact are either a reduction in the use of the first language in favour of another language, or the continued use of a language in the face of competition from other languages. The consequences may vary based on variables such as duration and frequency, and the pressures of contact with other language(s) from administrative, cultural, economic, political, military, historical, religious or demographic

9

The practice of alternately using two languages is called bilingualism, and the persons involved, bilingual, albeit to a different extent (Thomason, 2001). On the other hand, multilingualism is the practice of alternately using three or more languages (Weinreich, 1953).

3

sources. This paper will thus discuss and give examples of how minority groups in Indonesia adapt linguistically to survive in the face of societal change and external pressures, both in shifting to other languages or in their efforts to maintain their own languages.

LANGUAGE SHIFT10 IN INDONESIA Regional languages in Indonesia Sneddon (2003a) points out that “to arrive at the precise number of languages in Indonesia is impossible” (p.196). Different researchers often have different criteria for deciding whether two regional varieties are two separate languages or constitute the dialects11 of a single language; these criteria thus lead to a problematic discussion (Steinhauer, 1994; Sneddon, 2003a). In his study about language contact and bilingualism, Weinreich (1953) considered the difference in qualification between two languages in the broadest sense, by arguing that “It is immaterial whether the two systems are ‘languages,’ ‘dialects of the same language,’ or ‘varieties of the same dialect’.” (p.1). Weinreich continued to argue that the mechanisms of interference would appear to be the same whether the contact is between two different languages or between two sub-varieties of one language used by neighbouring families (1953:1).

Furthermore, the regional languages in Indonesia are normally used for intra-group purposes, while Indonesian is generally used for inter-group communication (Nababan, 1985). In such communication, Indonesian as the national language is not necessarily the language chosen, as throughout the archipelago various languages (vernaculars12) also act as lingua francas, some over significantly greater areas than others (Nababan, 1985; Sneddon, 2003a). In 1976, linguists in the Seminar on Vernacular Languages held in Yogyakarta made an observation that some of

10

Language shift denotes the replacement of one language by another as the primary means of communication and socialisation within a community (Mesthrie et al., 2000:253). 11 According to Oxford dictionary (2013), a dialect is a particular form of a language which is peculiar to a specific region or social group. 12 The vernacular is the language or dialect spoken by the ordinary people of a region; it is spoken as one’s mother tongue, not learned or imposed as a second language (Oxford Dictionary, 2013). In this essay, the term is used interchangeably with the regional language and local language.

4

the minor vernaculars were in danger of dying out, while some of the major Malay vernaculars were considered to be on the rise in terms of number of speakers and societal functions (Nababan, 1985). Such an observation indicates that there had been a shift from the minor to the major vernaculars.

One example of this situation of lingua franca and the language shift of vernaculars can be found in Kalimantan. Based on the official survey of 1980-1990 on first-language speakers,13 one significant percentage increase was Banjarese speakers14, who increased at the expense of other regional language speakers, such as Javanese and Sundanese (Sneddon, 2003a:203). Banjarese is the native language used by the Banjarese people of South Kalimantan. As many Banjarese are travelling merchants, they brought their language wherever they went, especially around Kalimantan. Thus, in the province of South Kalimantan, and in Central and East Kalimantan, nearly all the speakers of the minor languages15 are eventually able to speak Banjarese. Thus, the significant increase in the number of Banjarese speakers is at the expense of the Dayak languages, some of which have declined rapidly (Sneddon, 2003a:204). In South and Central Kalimantan particularly, Banjarese has moved from being the major lingua franca in the region to being the first language of much of the population; it is thus used alongside Indonesian in inter-ethnic communication (Sneddon, 2003a:203).

Another similar example can be found in Manado, North Sulawesi. Just like Banjarese, Manado Malay, which has long been the language of inter-ethnic communication, especially in the Minahasa region, was noted to have developed from being a lingua franca to being the first language of most of the population (Adriani, 1925, as cited in Sneddon, 2003a:204). As a consequence of this shift, other minor languages in the region (i.e. Ratahan and Bantik) are considered in danger of extinction (Ibid). 13

See appendix 1. From 1.4 million to 2.8 million speakers 15 Mostly the Dayak languages 14

5

Despite the spread of major vernaculars as lingua francas in some areas, it is the national language that is putting most pressure on the regional languages (Sneddon, 2003a:205). The result from the 1980-1990 official survey on first-language speakers primarily indicated that there has been a significant increase in the use of Indonesian as a first language in the provincial capitals and/or small towns in seven out of the 13 provinces covered in the survey (Nababan, 1985).

Indonesian language and the regional languages Throughout Indonesia, education has been conducted in the national language since independence. Nababan (1985) points out that there will be a gradual increase in the use of Indonesian language among the villagers or people in the small towns when the younger people who have gone through the educational system start replacing their elders on the village councils. Moreover, in big cities, especially Jakarta, economic pressure mainly is the cause of a growing shift to monolingualism in Indonesian. Mackey (1962) argues that knowledge of the majority language may be an economic necessity for speakers of a minority language in an ethnic community (p.30). Parents may even insist on making the majority language that of the home, in an effort to prevent their children from becoming economically underprivileged (Ibid).

Such is the pressure to use Indonesian that “there now seems to be a ‘taboo’ on using local languages in ‘trendy’ places” (Oetomo, 1990:70; Sneddon, 2003a:207). It has been observed that there is enormous pressure to use Indonesian in modern places (i.e. department stores and restaurants) that urban Indonesians consider ‘upmarket and prestigious,’ and where the middle class are prominent (Sneddon, 2003a:207). In such places, employees can become offended if addressed in a local language, even if it is within the region where the local language is spoken (Ibid). The elements of prestige and modernity have served as contributing factors to put 6

pressure on city dwellers, both in regional cities and in Jakarta, to use Indonesian in various situations. The shift from Jakarta Malay to Indonesian among traditional Betawi families is also an example of this trend (Sneddon, 2003a:155, 207; Sneddon 2003b).

All Indonesians, except those in very remote and isolated areas, are surrounded by the pressure to modernise, and Indonesian is the language of modernisation; proficiency in Indonesian is essential for anyone wanting to live anything but a wholly traditional life (Sneddon, 2003a). Even formerly isolated villages, such as in the forests of Kalimantan, now have little hope of retaining their traditional way of life. They have become increasingly exposed to the modern world, often through the intrusion of logging and mining companies into their land (Sneddon, 2003a).

LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE16 IN INDONESIA The knowledge of the shift trend from local languages to the Indonesian language has made older people in several areas become concerned about the fate of the local vernaculars which they fear may soon die out (Nababan, 1985; Manaf, 2010). However, Nababan (1985) strongly argues that this fear is rather misplaced for certain reasons. Firstly, this claim is more often made by speakers of the major vernaculars like Javanese and Sundanese, languages which would be the last to disappear if ever that would happen. Secondly, as long as there are still homogeneous regional language-speaking areas, there seems to be no likelihood that those regional languages will die out, and such areas will continue to exist even for the smaller languages (Ibid). Therefore, it seems reasonable to note that in spite of the relatively rapid shift of first language acquisition from a local vernacular to Indonesian, the vernaculars are still

16

Language maintenance denotes the continuing use of a language in the face of competition from a regionally and socially more powerful language (Mesthrie et al., 2000: 253). Where an indigenous group retains control of its traditional habitat and way of life, language maintenance is likely (Nettle and Romaine, 2000, as cited in Mesthrie et al., 2009: 248).

7

widely acquired as first languages and used in their normal function as an intra-group medium of communication (Ibid:17).

Nababan (1985) argues that if the vernaculars are undergoing some changes, particularly in vocabulary and written language through the borrowing of words and phrases, that seems to be a natural development of languages in order to cope with new situations (p.14). Likewise, Manaf (2010) also states that although language shift from vernaculars to Indonesian generally happens in all regional areas in Indonesia, such a shift is still considered to be at a safe level (p.112). Moreover, as Nababan (1985) also points out, the vernaculars enjoy a secure constitutional status as a recognized part of the Indonesian national culture and tradition.

Diglossia in Indonesia The Indonesian language exists in a diglossic state (Sneddon, 2003a:121). Therefore, Manaf (2010) suggests that one of the ways to maintain and preserve the regional languages in Indonesia, within the condition of bilingualism or multilingualism, is by keeping and stabilizing the situation of diglossia (p.114).

The notion of diglossia was proposed by Ferguson (1959)17 and later extended by Fishman (1967). It refers to the situation where two languages with distinct functional roles exist in one community; where at least two different levels or varieties of language exist, one formal or ‘High’ variety18 and another informal or ‘Low’ variety19 (Schiffman, 1992:291-292; Meyerhoff, 2011:119).

17

According to Ferguson, diglossia is “a relatively stable language in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language (which may include a standard or regional standards), there is a very highly codified (often grammatically more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body of written literature, either of an earlier period or in another speech community, which is learned largely by formal education and is used for most written and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any section of the community for ordinary conversation” (1959: 435). 18 Used for literacy, religious purposes, public performance, etc. 19 Used in non-literate contexts, in the home, on the streets, for jokes, etc.

8

One example of diglossia in Indonesia can be observed through several local newspapers in the big cities in some provinces. Major local daily newspapers, such as Banjarmasin Post in Banjarmasin or Manado Post in Manado,20 usually have small sections of columns for jokes, humours, or short stories. While standard Indonesian is used for the formal news, the regional languages are used in these small sections as it considered to be less formal. It was also assumed that the use of regional languages, even in informal settings, is still considered to be a symbol of one’s ethnic identity.

Furthermore, based on research done by linguists on language maintenance in Indonesia, there is an indication that there was a sign of diglossia leakage, which means the Indonesian language (High variety) had encroached upon the regional languages (Low variety). However, the regional languages apparently were still withstanding the pressure of Indonesian because most of the languages were still frequently used for certain functions within the communities (Manaf, 2010). One example of this can be found in a study by Sumarsono (1993), who did research on the language maintenance of Loloan Malay in Bali. The study demonstrated that the language was still withstanding the pressure of Indonesian due to the religion factor, and was still used within the Muslim community as a symbol of religious faith and to distinguish themselves from the majority Hindu communities in Bali (Manaf, 2010).

Efforts to maintain regional languages in Indonesia The position of regional languages in Indonesia is clearly regulated under the Indonesian Law number 24/2009. Section three, article 42 of the law, stated that the local governments are obliged to develop, nurture, and protect regional languages and literatures in order to fulfil their position and function within the life of society and to remain as a part of the cultural richness of Indonesia. Moreover, one good example of the local government’s policy to protect the local

20

See Appendix 2 and 3.

9

language can be found in Surabaya, East Java, through the ‘Decision of Governor of East Java’ number 188/188/KPTS/013/2005 regarding the compulsory curriculum of the Javanese language subject for the 6-year elementary and 3-year junior high schools, or their equivalents, within the region of East Java.

However, Sneddon (2003a) once argued that, in practice, the effort to maintain regional languages in Indonesia has only been focused on major vernaculars, such as Javanese and Sundanese, and less on other minor vernaculars. The official Language Centre (Pusat Bahasa) sponsors the study of regional languages by university researchers; however, due to limited funds and training, the grammatical descriptions and dictionaries that are produced are generally of poor quality (Sneddon, 2003a:207). Moreover, Sneddon (2003a) also argues that such scholarly research does not encourage the use of the languages described and rarely even comes to the notice of speakers of the languages, especially the minor vernaculars. Efforts to foster particular regional languages are usually undertaken by local interest groups and no matter how well-intentioned these efforts might be, they achieve very little (Sneddon, 2003a:208).

In the era of modernisation, traditional cultures are becoming increasingly marginalised. Even for most rural people, the acquisition of some of the advantages of modernisation and development is far more desirable than clinging to traditional values. However, Sneddon (2003a) proposes that the only realistic way of preserving the regional languages would be in a genuine attempt to maintain the traditional cultures in which the languages are used, because the preservation of languages is linked closely to the preservation of the cultures of which those languages are a part (Ibid:207). Moreover, Alisjahbana once wrote that there was no justification for a language policy that preserves hundreds of languages spoken by small groups of people by artificial means. Such a policy would only turn Indonesia into a language museum (Teeuw, 1979:33; Sneddon, 2003a:209). 10

The development of the Indonesian language Thomason (2001) points out that the most common result of language contact is change in some or all of the languages: typically, one of the languages will exert at least some influence on at least one of the other languages. The most common specific type of influence is the borrowing of words (Thomason, 2001:10). This result is also likely to happen in the Indonesian language as a result of contact with other regional languages. This is because the Indonesian language is a modified Malay language, which has continued to adopt and adapt words from other languages, including the vernaculars. Inevitably, as part of its development, the Indonesian language continues to be open to the practice of adapting and borrowing words.

According to the 4th edition of Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia21 (2008), from the total of 90,049 entries, 3,592 entries22 are words adopted from regional languages (Budiwiyanto, 2011). From the mapping of this contribution, it appears that languages that are geographically located in the eastern region of Indonesia contributed less than those from the western side, with Javanese being the greatest contributor, followed by Minangkabau and Sundanese (Ibid).

Although the eastern side of Indonesia has a much larger number of languages than the western region, it is the number of speakers that apparently influences the amount of vocabulary absorbed into Indonesian. Budiwiyanto (2011) also points out that in addition to the number of speakers, there are several other factors that affect the amount of absorbed regional vocabularies into the Indonesian language, especially to the KBBI. These are: the frequency of use of vernacular vocabulary by journalists in the mass media; the frequency of use of the vernacular vocabulary by prominent authors or poets in their writings; the frequency of use of vernacular vocabulary by public figures, and new concepts of vocabulary that are not owned by Indonesian. 21 22

The Big Dictionary of Indonesian Language See appendix 4.

11

CONCLUSIONS As a linguistically diverse nation, Indonesia is an ideal location in which to study language contact in terms of both its process and outcomes. This essay has attempted to present some of the outcomes from contact between languages in Indonesia. In terms of language shift, it shows not only the process of shift from the vernaculars to Indonesian, but also a significant shift from smaller vernaculars to the major vernaculars. As for the language maintenance, the policies made by the government to protect the regional languages were, to some extent, only applicable for major vernaculars with larger numbers of speakers, and there was less support to protect the minor languages. The regional languages with more speakers have also contributed in adding vocabularies to the Indonesian language.

To conclude, the greater the number of speakers of a language, the greater the tendency is for that language to influence other languages in language contact. Moreover, the position of the Indonesian language will likely be strengthened as the proportion of the population classified as first-language speakers of Indonesian continues to grow. Manaf (2010) suggests that in order to maintain regional languages and develop Indonesian at the same time, keeping the stability of diglossia is crucial. However, although some studies have indicated that diglossia in Indonesia will remain stable for a long period of time, as Sneddon (2003a) points out, the future diglossic state of the language in Indonesia remains questionable.

12

REFERENCES Alisjahbana, S. T. (1962). Indonesian Language and Literature: Two Essays (The Modernization of the Indonesian Language in Practice and The Development of the Indonesian Language and Literature). New Haven: Yale University. Alisjahbana, S. T. (1974). Language Policy, Language Engineering and Literacy in Indonesia and Malaysia. In J. A. Fishman (ed.), Advances in Language Planning. The Hague: Mouton (pp.391-416). Alisjahbana, S. T. (1976). Language Planning and Modernization: The Case of Indonesian and Malaysian. The Hague: Mouton. Alisjahbana, S. T. (1986). ‘The Relation of Language, Thought and Culture As Reflected in the Development of the Indonesian Language’. Int’l. J. Soc. Lang., 62(1986), 25-49. Amsterdam: Mouton de Gruyter. Budiwiyanto, A. (2011). Kontribusi Bahasa Daerah Dalam Bahasa Indonesia. Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa, Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Republik

Indonesia.

Retrieved

on

2/06/2013

from

http://badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/lamanbahasa/artikel/1285 Central Intelligence Agency (2013). The World Factbook. Retrieved on 2/06/2013 from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/id.html Ferguson, C. A. (1959). Diglossia. in P. P. Giglioli (ed.) (1972) Language and Social Context: Selected Readings. Harmondsworth: Penguin. pp.232-251. Gunarwan, A. (2001). Indonesian and Banjarese Malay Among Banjarese Ethnics in Banjarmasin City: A Case of Diglossia Leakage? (Paper presented at the Annual International Symposium on Malay/Indonesian Linguistics, 5th, Leipzig, Germany, June 16-17, 2001).

13

Lewis, M. P., Gary F. S., and Charles D. F. (Eds.) (2013). Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth

edition.

Dallas,

Texas:

SIL

International.

Online

version:

http://www.ethnologue.com. (Accessed on 07/06/2013) Lin, A. Y. M., and Li, C. S. D. (2012). Codeswitching. In M. Martin-Jones, A. Blackledge, A. Creese (Eds.). (2012). The Routledge Handbook of Multilingualism. London and New York: Routledge. (pp.470-481). Lowenberg, P. H. (1992). ‘Language Policy and Language Identity in Indonesia’. Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 59-77. Mackey, W. F. (1962). The Description of Bilingualism. In L. Wei (Ed.) (2000). The Bilingualism Reader. London and New York: Routledge. (pp. 22-50). Manaf, N. A. (2010). Pengembangan Bahasa Indonesia dan Pelestarian Bahasa Daerah Melalui Penstabilan Diglosia. (Presented at Seminar Nasional Pemertahanan Bahasa Nusantara. Diponegoro University, Semarang, 6 May 2010). Marhum, M. (2005). Language Policy and Educational Decentralization in Indonesia. Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation. Flinders Universty, South Australia. Mesthrie, R. and Leap, W. L. (2000). Language Contact 1: Maintenance, Shift and Death. In R. Mesthrie, J. Swann, A. Deumert, W. L. Leap (Eds.) (2000). Introducing Sociolinguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. (pp.248-278) Meyerhoff, M. (2011). Introducing Sociolinguistics. London: Routledge. Minahan, J. B. (2012). Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopaedia. California, USA: ABC-CLLO, LLC. Nababan, P.W.J. (1985). ‘Bilingualism in Indonesia: Ethnic Language Maintenance and the Spread of the National Language’. Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science, 13 (1). Oetomo, D. (1990). The Bahasa Indonesia of the Middle Class. Prisma, 50:68-79.

14

Paauw, S. (2009). One Land, One Nation, One Language: An Analysis of Indonesia’s National Language Policy. In H. Lehnert-LeHouillier and A. B. Fine (Eds.), University of Rochester Working Papers in the Language Sciences, 5(1), 2-16. Schiffman, H. F. (1992). Diglossia, Linguistic Culture and Language Policy in Southeast Asia. University of Washington (pp.279-307). Sneddon, J. N. (2003a). The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society. Sydney: UNSW Press. Sneddon, J. N. (2003b). ‘Diglossia in Indonesian’. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 159(4), pp. 519-549. Sumarsono. (1990). Pemertahanan Bahasa Melayu Loloan di Bali (dissertation). Faculty of Literature, University of Indonesia. Steinhauer, H. (1994). The Indonesian Language Situation and Linguistics: Prospects and Possibilities. In Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 150 Volumes of Bijdragen; A Backward Glimpse and a Forward Glimpse 150 (1994), no: 4, Leiden, 755-784 Teeuw, A. (1979). Modern Indonesian Literature vol. 1. 2nd edn. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague. Thomason, S. G. (2001). Language Contact: An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Thomason, S. G., Kaufmann, T. (1988). Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. California and Oxford: Univeristy of California Press. Wei, L. (Ed.) (2000). The Bilingualism Reader. London and New York: Routledge Weinreich, U. (1953). Languages in Contact. New York: Columbia University Press. Woolard, K. A. (2000). Review of Shifting Languages: Interaction and Identity in Javanese Indonesian by J. J. Errington. Language and Society, 29 (3):456-460.

15

Website link: -

Undang-undang RI No. 24/2009 tentang Bendera, Bahasa, dan Lambang Negara, serta Lagu Kebangsaan (Indonesian Law No. 24/2009 on the subject of Flag, Language, National

Symbol,

and

National

Anthem)

http://badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/lamanbahasa/sites/default/files/UU_2009_24.pdf (accessed on 05/06/2013). -

Glossary of Terms for the Standardization of Geographical Names, United Nations Group of Experts on Geographic Names, United Nations, New York, 2002. http://www.oecd.org/ (accessed on 12/06/2013).

-

Badan Pusat Statistik, Sensus Penduduk 2010 (Central Bureau of Statistics, National Censuses 2010) http://sp2010.bps.go.id/ (accessed on 04/06/2013).

16

APPENDIX 1: First-language speakers in the 1980 and 1990 censuses in Indonesia Language

Number of Speakers (millions)

Percentage of Speakers

1980

1990

1980

1990

Javanese

51.4

60.3

41.3

38.8

Sundanese

18.8

24.2

15.1

15.6

Madurese

6.0

6.8

4.9

4.4

Minangkabau

3.0

3.5

2.4

2.3

Buginese

2.9

3.2

2.3

2.1

Batak

2.6

3.1

2.1

2.0

Balinese

2.2

2.6

1.8

1.7

Banjarese

1.4

2.8

1.1

1.8

Other

21.5

27.0

17.3

17.4

Indonesian

14.8

24.0

11.9

15.5

Adopted from Sneddon, J. N. (2003). The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society. Sydney: UNSW Press (p.203).

17

APPENDIX 2: BANJARMASIN POST, 3 June 2013 Source: http://epaper.banjarmasinpost.co.id/ Alongside the headlines with Indonesian language in the first page, there are two sections using Banjarese for informal function: humour. The first one is a story about a fictitious character named “Palui” (which continued to page 18), and the other one (Pandiran di Getek) is a very small section about a piece of conversation in response to one of the headlines.

18

APPENDIX 3: MANADO POST, 12 June 2013 Source: http://epaper.mdopost.com/

While the rest of the newspaper (except the advertisement) mostly uses the Indonesian language, the small column in the right side of this particular page is using Manado Malay. It is about an informal conversation between two people and contains humour and jokes. The topic of the conversation is usually related with or in response to the headline of the page.

19

APPENDIX 4: Regional languages and number of absorbed vocabularies in the 4th edition of Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (The Big Dictionary of Indonesian Language), 2008. No.

Language Name Label in Number of (in Indonesian)

KBBI Vocabularies

Percentage

Province Central Java, East Java,

1 Jawa

Jw

1109

30.87

2 Minangkabau

Mk

929

25.86

West Sumatera

3 Sunda

Sd

223

6.21

West Java

Mdr

221

6.15

East Java

5 Bali

Bl

153

4.26

Bali

6 Aceh

Ach

112

3.12

Aceh

7 Banjar

Bjr

100

2.78

East Kalimantan

8 Muna

Mu

63

1.75

Southeast Sulawesi

9 Using

Us

46

1.28

East Java

10 Gayo

Gy

45

1.25

Aceh

11 Tolaki

Tlk

42

1.17

Southeast Sulawesi

12 Wolio

Wl

36

1.00

Southeast Sulawesi

13 Muyu

My

33

0.92

Papua

14 Batak

Bt

32

0.89

North Sumatera

15 Alas

Als

30

0.84

Aceh

16 Kaili

Kal

30

0.84

Central Sulawesi

17 Bugis

Bg

24

0.67

South Sulawesi

18 Dayak

Dy

20

0.56

Central Kalimantan

19 Sangir/Sangihe

Sng

19

0.53

North Sulawesi

20 Sasak

Sk

18

0.50

West Nusa Tenggara

21 Lampung

Lp

17

0.47

Lampung

22 Benuaq

Bn

16

0.45

East Kalimantan

23 Makassar

Mks

15

0.42

South Sulawesi

24 Berik

Brk

14

0.39

Papua

25 Jayawijaya

Jyw

13

0.36

Papua

26 Sumbawa

Sb

13

0.36

West Nusa Tenggara

4 Madura

Yogyakarta Special Region

20

27 Papua

Pp

12

0.33

Papua

28 Putuk

Ptk

12

0.33

East Kalimantan

29 Dani

Dn

11

0.31

Papua

Pl /Wkt

11

0.31

Southeast Sulawesi

31 Minahasa

Mn

10

0.28

Papua

32 Mandar

Mr

10

0.28

South Sulawesi

33 Tombulu

Tbl

10

0.28

North Sulawesi

34 Minahasa Tonsea

Tns

10

0.28

North Sulawesi

35 Abrab

Abr

9

0.25

Papua

36 Sentani

Stn

8

0.2

Papua

37 Toulour

Tl

8

0.22

North Sulawesi

38 Toraja

Trj

7

0.19

South Sulawesi

39 Bugis-Makassar

BgM

6

0.17

South Sulawesi

40 Bima

Bm

6

0.17

West Nusa Tenggara

41 Kapuas Hulu

Kh

6

0.17

West Kalimantan

42 Kamoro

Kmr

6

0.17

Papua

43 Talaud

Tld

6

0.17

North Sulawesi

44 Waropen

Wrp

6

0.17

Papua

45 Biak

Bk

5

0.14

Papua

46 Ekagi

Ekg

5

0.14

Papua

47 Fakfak

Ff

5

0.14

Papua

48 Kulawi

Kul

5

0.14

Central Sulawesi

49 Massenrempulu

Mp

5

0.14

South Sulawesi

50 Sorong

Sr

5

0.14

Papua

51 Asmat

Asm

4

0.11

Papua

52 Wamena

Wmn

4

0.11

Papua

Aj

3

0.08

South Sumatera

54 Basemah

Bsm

3

0.08

South Sumatera

55 Mimika

Mmk

3

0.08

Papua

56 Sekayu

Sky

3

0.08

South Sumatera

PnT

2

0.06

Papua

58 Awyu

Awy

1

0.03

Papua

59 Baliem

Blm

1

0.03

Papua

30 Pulo/Wakatobi

53 Aji

57

Pegunungan Tengah

21

60 Bauzi

Bz

1

0.03

Papua

Dm/Amk

1

0.03

Papua

62 Jayapura

Jyp

1

0.03

Papua

63 Kimaam

Km

1

0.03

Papua

64 Kaureh

Kr

1

0.03

Papua

65 Lengkayap

Lkp

1

0.03

South Sumatera

66 Bian Marind Deg

Mrd

1

0.03

Papua

67 Ormu

Or

1

0.03

Papua

68 Petapa

Pt

1

0.03

Central Sulawesi

69 Rampi

Ram

1

0.03

Central Sulawesi

70 Wandamen

Wdm

1

0.03

Papua

61 Damal/Amungkal

Total

3592

Adopted from Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa, Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan (Language Bureau, Ministry of Education and Culture) web link: http://badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/lamanbahasa/

22