Aegean Prehistoric Cultures: Minoan Culture

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AEGEAN PREHISTORIC CULTURES: Minoan Culture

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Barber, R. L. N. The Cyclades in the Bronze Age, 1987. Broodbank, Cyprian. “Ulysses without Sails: Trade, Distance, Knowledge and Power in the Early Cyclades.” World Archaeology 24 (1993): 315–331. Davis, Jack L. “Perspectives on the Prehistoric Cyclades: An Archaeological Introduction.” In Early Cycladic Art in North American Collections, edited by P. GetzPreziosi, pp. 4–45, 1987. Doumas, Christos G. Early Bronze Age Burial Habits in the Cyclades, 1977. Doumas, Christos G. Thera: Pompeii of the Ancient Aegean: Excavations at Akrotiri, 1967–79, 1983. Getz-Preziosi, Pat. Sculptors of the Cyclades: Individual and Tradition in the Third Millennium B.C., 1987. Gill, David, and Christopher Chippindale. “Material and Intellectual Consequences of Esteem for Cycladic Figures.” American Journal of Archaeology 97 (1993): 601–659. Renfrew, Colin. The Emergence of Civilisation: The Cyclades and the Aegean in the Third Millennium BC, 1972.

Cyprian Broodbank

Aegean Prehistoric Cultures: Minoan Culture The island of Crete was the center of Minoan civilization. At 150 miles (250 km) in length and 36 miles (60 km) in width at its widest point in the center, Crete is the largest island in the Aegean. Situated just 180 miles (300 km) from Africa, it is also ideally situated to absorb influences from Egypt, the Near East, and Europe. It is dominated by a mountainous backbone interspersed with fertile plains for growing cereal crops. Terraced hillsides were also cultivated and the cereal-olive-vine triad dominated agricultural activity. The population was largely concentrated in the north around a number of bays. Recent evidence that the earliest settlement in Crete dates to the Paleolithic and Mesolithic eras is indicated by lithic scatters discovered by the Plakias survey in the Preveli Gorge in the southwest. These remains indicate premodern humans, Homo heidelbergensis, were already undertaking seafaring. Continuous habitation of the island began in the Aceramic Neolithic Period, ca. 7000 BC. The introductions of the bread wheat complex to Crete

combined with DNA analysis indicate colonization by Anatolian settlers. This period was characterized by a long period of relative stability until the start of the Bronze Age, around 3000 BC. The chronological parameters of the Minoan Bronze Age are taken to be roughly 3000 to 1000 BC. Milestones in Minoan civilization include the foundation of the first palaces in the Middle Bronze Age, ca. 1900 BC; a seismic event at the end of the Middle Bronze Age, ca. 1700 BC; the eruption of Thera, ca. 1614 BC in Late Minoan IA; the destruction of all the Minoan palaces and villas except for Knossos in Late Minoan IB; the end of Knossos, ca. 1375 BC; and the foundation of mountainous refuge settlements at the end of the Bronze Age, ca. 1200 BC. Sir Arthur Evans named the Minoans for the legendary king Minos in order to distinguish Bronze Age Crete from the Greek mainland (Helladic) and the islands (Cycladic). Evans’s four-volume account of his excavations at Knossos and of Minoan civilization, The Palace of Minos at Knossos (London, 1921–1935), laid the foundation for, and continues to dominate our understanding of the Minoans. In addition, Evans employed a team of restorers who reconstructed many finds, wall paintings, and large sections of the palace, activities that continue to generate controversy. Evans also developed the three-age system of relative chronology used for the Aegean Bronze Age, which is based on divisions into Early (EM, or 3000–2000 BC), Middle (MM or 1900–ca.1700 BC), and Late Minoan (LM or 1700–1100 BC), each further subdivided into I, II, and III. Though useful for stratigraphic dating, this system does not entirely reflect Minoan cultural development. The high point of Minoan culture was a centralized palacedominated civilization, and the Greek archaeologist Nikolas Platon developed an alternative chronology: Prepalatial (EM I–MM I), Protopalatial (MM I–MM III), Neopalatial (MM III–LM IB), Final Palatial (LM II–LM IIIA at Knossos), and Postpalatial (LM IIIB–LM IIIC). Year dates are approximate, and are based on a combination of methods. These include carbon 14 samples that are analyzed in a laboratory and correlated to patterns on the growth rings of

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10 AEGEAN PREHISTORIC CULTURES: Minoan Culture long-lived trees, a method known as dendrochronology. These data are correlated to stylistic data from decorated pottery and other objects found in known contexts. Stylistic data are also correlated to inscribed Egyptian objects datable from Egyptian calendars. As absolute dates for the Bronze Age are approximate, most archaeologists prefer to use relative terms that are based on changes in pottery style.

Early Minoan Crete. Early Minoan Crete (3000– 2000 BC) was characterized by a substantial degree of regional variation in pottery decoration and in tomb groups. This suggests that the society was divided into a series of small politically and economically independent units. We derive limited evidence from EM II (ca. 2500 BC) settlements at MyrtosPhournou Koryphi and Tripeti, which were characterized by simple structures built of stone and mud brick. In contrast, communal tombs, which resembled dwellings, served as the focal points for conspicuous displays of wealth and for communal ritual. There were two main types of tombs, tholos (circular) tombs of the Mesara region in southern Crete and the rectangular “house-tombs” of central and east Crete. Both types were stone-built, incorporating some worked masonry. Once a body had decayed, the bones were moved to another chamber and the skulls were curated separately, a common feature in early cultures of the Mediterranean. Multiple inhumations in a single tomb indicate that kinship groups reused the tombs over many generations. Offerings for the dead vary from personal possessions (weapons, jewelry, and toiletry implements) to pottery offerings. The use of precious materials imported from the east such gold, bronze, and ivory seals suggest a developing economic infrastructure, controlled by an emerging hierarchy, at least from EM II. In addition, we begin to see items that communicate higher status, such as gold diadems and stone mace heads. Protopalatial Crete. Cultural progress accelerated with the emergence of the first Minoan palaces in MM IB. These were established at the sites of

Knossos, Phaistos, and Mallia and consisted of rooms organized around a central court that was carefully proportioned, being twice as long as it was wide. They were oriented north-south, frequently on a sacred mountain. A second, public court with ceremonial walkways was located to the west of the indented facade, which formed the public face of the building. Other important monumental administrative structures from this time have been found at Monastiraki and in Quartier Mu at Mallia. Though the details of their arrangements are obscured by later constructions, the first palaces served as the administrative and ritual centers of what were probably politically independent, but economically interdependent polities. Although some scholars still believe in Knossian hegemony, many others have adopted the model of factional competition among elites as manifested in the continued proliferation of monumental buildings and access to luxury items in the Neopalatial period. Easily identifiable in the first palaces are storage rooms (magazines) on the west, lined with enormous pithoi (storage jars), where surplus agricultural produce was stored. They also supported specialist crafters, working in gold, faience, stone, and producing the fine, polychrome (orange and white curvilinear designs on a black background) “Kamares” pottery, which defines the MM period. Stone seals and clay sealings suggest administration, where elaborate designs sometimes co-occur with a hieroglyphic script, still undeciphered, but including pictograms, phonetic symbols, and numerals. A new, but still undeciphered writing system known as Linear A appears by the end of this period.

Neopalatial Crete. The Protopalatial Period ended with a devastating earthquake (MM III). The succeeding Neopalatial Period represents the apex of Minoan civilization—the Minoans rebuilt their palaces and society on an even larger and richer scale. At this time, the palaces reached their canonical form. In addition to those features already mentioned, they included small cult rooms in the west wing near the storage areas, often in the form of a small, dark pillar room or “crypt,” a pillared hall to

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AEGEAN PREHISTORIC CULTURES: Minoan Culture

the north, small sunken rooms known as “lustral basins,” and they were appointed with elaborate meeting halls. One or more of the walls forming these halls were made up entirely of doors framed by piers. The manipulation of these pier-and-door partitions allowed for the modification of light and space, which could open up the hall to a light well. The generous use of corridors and stairways increased the labyrinthine character of Minoan monumental structures. In addition, each Minoan palace had features unique to its particular location: Knossos had its famous “throne room,” Phaistos had four “lustral basins,” more than any other palace, Mallia devoted more space to storage and industry, and Kato Zakro had a unique series of water features related to industry and/or to rituals connected with its role in maritime trade. Mason’s marks carved on many of the finely worked blocks in the palaces included the double axe, tree branch, star, and trident. They may have referenced guilds of masons or carried a now elusive symbolism. Palatial buildings might be decorated with stone veneering and pavements, stylized stone “horns of consecration,” which marked important areas, and figural wall paintings. Iconography is also manifest in other art forms including carved stone vases, stone seals, and gold rings. Themes that are represented in Minoan art include processions, landscapes, depictions of flora and fauna, marine scenes, and contests. There was also a change in decorated pottery to the Floral style in LM IA, followed by the Marine style in LM IB. These styles are characterized by a shift to dark-on-light decoration. Other popular pottery motifs included the ripple pattern, running spiral, double axe, “horns of consecration,” and sacral knot. At the town of Kato Zakro on the east coast of Crete, a fourth palace was founded to facilitate trade with the Near East. Additional palaces have been uncovered at Gournia, Galatas, and Petras, and other monumental court-centered structures have been uncovered at Kommos, Makrigialos, and Zominthos. In addition, the settlements at these and other sites such as Palaikastro, Mochlos, Kommos (the port of Phaistos and Ayia Triada) continued to

thrive. Villas, such as those at Ayia Triada, Tylissos, Pyrgos-Myrtos, Nirou Chani, and Vathypetro emulate palatial architectural features on a smaller scale. The presence of recurring seal designs at multiple sites, and the expanded use of Linear A, demonstrates the complex administrative system into which these sites were integrated. During this period the Minoans exerted strong cultural influence on the mainland and on the neighboring Cyclades, particularly at Thera, Kea, and Melos. They developed extensive overseas contacts with Egypt, Cyprus, and the East. Minoan-style fresco paintings discovered in palaces at the Hyksos capital of Tell el-D’aba in Egypt, at Qatna (Syria), and at Canaanite Tell Kabri (Israel) suggest the movement of artisans, possibly through gift exchange. They also established colonies on the island of Kythera to facilitate trade with Laconia and at the site of Miletus (ancient Millawanda) in Anatolia. The ubiquity of cultic paraphernalia including figurines, double axes, rhyta (vases with a flow-through hole for liquid offerings), and ritual scenes (depicting altars, sacrifices, baetyls [stones worshipped as divinities], and epiphanies), indicates that religion served as a pervasive ideology enabling Minoan elites to maintain their position and status. As befitted an agrarian society, religious ritual emphasized the fertility of Nature, seasonal cycles, and rites of transition, such as initiation. Ritual scenes are given a rural context, with communal shrines associated with natural features, such as caves, springs, and mountain peaks. There is little doubt that Minoan religion was polytheistic and that female deities and priestesses in a variety of guises, played a central role in religious practices. In the Neopalatial Period, public access to small, secluded palace shrines was restricted, and control of many rural sanctuaries was centralized, as indicated by the dedication of luxury items such as bronze figurines, votive doubleaxes, and stone libation tables bearing Linear A inscriptions. Palatial control of religion is also indicated by iconography as depicted on gold rings.

Postpalatial Crete. The Neopalatial Period ended in LM IB (ca. 1470/50 BC) with fiery destructions

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12 AEGEAN PREHISTORIC CULTURES: Minoan Culture across the island, with the exception of Knossos. These destructions are suggestive of warfare, rather than natural disaster. While some sites did not recover, elite tombs in the hinterland suggest a feudal aristocracy administered by Knossos. Knossos remained as the only functioning palace, now inhabited by an administration writing in the Linear B script (deciphered as Mycenaean Greek). This, along with the introduction of new grave types (“Warrior Graves”), non-Minoan vase forms and pottery decorated in the monumental Palace Style, and banqueting scenes, suggest a foreign, Mycenaean component was ruling Knossos during its final phase. Knossos underwent a final destruction in 1375 BC/LM IIIA and was reoccupied by squatters. Knossos and other Minoan sites were later memorialized through the formation of ruin cults in which new elites sought to establish genealogical links with a prestigious past. Nevertheless, Postpalatial Crete enjoyed several centuries of relative prosperity until the Bronze Age ended, around 1200 BC. Important centers were established at Ayia Triada, Gournia, Kommos, and Chania. Chania in western Crete, for instance, was the source of Linear B–marked stirrup jars, which were exported as oil containers throughout the Aegean. Crete, however, did not escape the catastrophic destructions that spread across the Mediterranean, marking the transition from the Bronze to the Iron Age. Displaced Minoans and Mycenaeans were among the Sea Peoples who threatened Egypt in the early twelfth century BC. Defeated in 1191 BC by Rameses III, some of them settled in the coastal plain of the southern Levant among the local Canaanite population. The Philistine civilization, a culture with distinct Aegean characteristics, emerged out of this period of migration and resettlement. The destruction of Mycenaean civilization may have motivated the remnants of Minoan culture, which by this time had a Greek ethnic component, to establish strategically placed settlements in the mountains. Among these are Kavousi, Chalasmenos, Katalimita, and Karphi in the mountainous regions of eastern Crete. When Karphi and Kavousi-Vronda were abandoned around 1050 BC, the people left behind the cult

images—the goddesses with upraised arms—that were the final manifestations of the Minoan Goddess. This marked the symbolic end of Minoan civilization. [See also Evans, Arthur; Knossos; Mediterranean World: The Mediterranean Stone Age; Mediterranean World: The Rise of the Aegean and Mediterranean States.] BIBLIOGRAPHY

Driessen, Jan, Ilse Schoep, and Robert Laffineur, eds. Monuments of Minos: Rethinking the Minoan Palaces, Aegaeum 23, 2002. This recent collection of essays indicates how much our understanding of the Minoan palaces and Minoan society continues to be an area of lively debate. Other works in the Aegaeum series are recommended as they explore various themes in Aegean culture such as warfare, politics, feasting, and religion. Hamilakis, Yannis, and Nicoletta Momigliano, eds. Archaeology and European Modernity: Producing and Consuming the “Minoans.” Creta Antica 7, 2006. This collection of critical essays examines the history research into Minoan archaeology. Hitchcock, Louise A., and Marianna Nikolaidou. “Gender in Greek and Aegean Prehistory.” In Companion to Gender Prehistory, edited by Diane Bolger, 2012. This article provides a detailed overview of gender studies in Aegean prehistory, and includes a comprehensive bibliography. MacGillivray, Joseph A. Minotaur: Sir Arthur Evans and the Archaeology of the Minoan Myth, 2000. This critical biography of Evans, the excavator of Knossos, explores the qualities that influenced Evans’s success and interpretation of Aegean archaeology. Manning, Sturt W. A Test of Time: The Volcano of Thera and the Chronology and History of the Aegean and East Mediterranean in the Mid Second Millennium BC, 1999. Though somewhat superseded by recent findings published in scientific journals, this work provides a detailed account of current approaches to and problems in Aegean chronology, with a focus on the eruption of Thera. Preziosi, Donald, and Louise A. Hitchcock. Aegean Art and Architecture, 1999. This is an introductory text that will prepare the reader for more advanced research in Aegean archaeology, with a bibliographic essay. Rehak, Paul, and John Younger. “Review of Aegean Prehistory VII: Neopalatial, Final Palatial, and Postpalatial Crete.” American Journal of Archaeology 102

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AEGEAN PREHISTORIC CULTURES: Helladic (Mycenaean) Culture

(1998): 91–173. This article provides an in-depth overview of the palatial and postpalatial periods on Crete, with further references. Watrous, L. Vance. “Review of Aegean Prehistory III: Crete from the Earliest Prehistory through the Protopalatial Period.” American Journal of Archaeology 98 (1994): 695–753. This article provides an in-depth overview of the prepalatial period on Crete, with further references.

Alan Peatfield; revised by Louise Hitchcock

Aegean Prehistoric Cultures: Helladic (Mycenaean) Culture The recognition and definition of Mycenaean society began in the second half of the nineteenth century with Heinrich Schliemann’s excavations at Troy, Mycenae, Tiryns, and Orchomenos. His interests were stimulated by Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, and with his excavations he attempted to show the historicity of the epics through links to the archaeological remains. Other scholars, such as Christos Tsountas of the Archaeological Society of Athens, A. J. B Wace for the British School at Mycenae, and Carl Blegen for the American School of Classical Studies at the palace of Pylos in Messenia, continued the tradition of Schliemann’s work while shifting attention from the literary tradition to actual archaeological discoveries. Since the decipherment in the 1950s of the Linear B script—the written form of the Mycenaean period Greek language—a more detailed reconstruction of Mycenaean society has been possible. Thousands of documents written on clay tablets have turned up at many sites on the mainland of Greece and on Crete. In addition to this, increasing knowledge of events in the eastern Mediterranean has focused attention on the role of the Mycenaeans in the international arena of the late second millennium BC. Even though research has been ongoing for more than 130 years, there is still much that we do not know about the Mycenaeans and the mainland in this period. The scene is also continuously changing, with new sites and new evidence carrying the potential to completely alter what we now know.

Mycenaean civilization developed on the mainland of Greece between approximately 1700 BC and 1600 BC. By around 1400 BC, their influence had extended throughout the islands of the Aegean Sea and along the coast of Anatolia. Between roughly 1200 BC and 1100 BC, the Mycenaean civilization collapsed, at the same time that the Hittite empire disintegrated, cities in Cyprus and the Levant were destroyed, and Egypt repulsed foreign invaders. The Mycenaeans largely inhabited the Peloponnese and central Greece. Their territory also extended north to Thessaly, west to the Ionian islands, and east into the Aegean islands and the coast of Anatolia. At their greatest extent, Mycenaean artifacts are distributed from the west coast of Anatolia into its central plateau; throughout Cyprus; along the coastal margins of Syria-Palestine; along the Nile in Egypt and even into Nubia; in southern Italy, Sicily, and surrounding islands; and on Sardinia. The determination of the Mycenaean or Late Helladic (LH) period’s beginning, internal divisions (I, II, IIIA, IIIB, and IIIC), and end is based almost entirely on pottery styles. These ceramic phases do not necessarily correspond to historical periods, however, so occasionally scholars prefer chronological divisions that are based on the lifecycle of the palace—a defining cultural and architectural feature—following more closely the economic and political character of the society (e.g., Pre-Palatial, Palatial, and Post-Palatial). An absolute chronology, or numerical calendar dates, can also be reckoned by linking these ceramic sequences to Egyptian sites and finds, especially where Mycenaean pottery occurs in Egypt, or Egyptian objects are found in the Aegean. The absolute dates are necessarily approximate but are now becoming much more refined through scientific dating methods, such as carbon 14 dating and dendrochronology (tree rings). Recent studies suggest that the upper end of the LH period should begin earlier (ca. 1700 BC) and extend longer than originally assumed; the absolute dates for the Late Helladic III period (fourteenth through twelfth centuries BC), on the other hand, seem to correspond very closely with the traditional relative dating sequence.

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