Aboriginal Autonomy through Environmental Sustainability

Espen Fikseaunet

Research Reflection Paper

Aboriginal Autonomy through Environmental Sustainability -

Considering Social, Political, and Economic Impacts of Sustainable Living Among Native Groups in North America

Date: 13. December 2013 1. Edition

“All things are connected. Whatever befalls the earth, befalls the sons and daughters of the earth.”  Chief Seattle

Table of contents

Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1 I. Sustainability ............................................................................................................... 2 II. Environment in Aboriginal Cosmology ..................................................................... 4 III. Incentives for Sustainable Life ................................................................................. 5 IV. Legitimacy of Autonomy .......................................................................................... 7 V. Enmity or Amity......................................................................................................... 8 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 8

Introduction The rise of globalization can be felt everywhere. An increased awareness of the mankind as a global body seems to be accompanied by a heightened sensitivity to injustices and the looming crises that are confronting humanity. Among these dangers, the environmental crisis stands out in particular. It carries threats of pollution, global warming, dwindling resources, and a number of meteorological, chemical, and spatial changes that are taking place on the large scale. Its implications extend to health, safety, lifestyle, economy, power relations, politics, law, and virtually every aspect of human society. Times of crisis should not, however, be considered solely negative. With crisis comes the opportunity to reform. In a time when ideological hegemony is challenged by a newfound experience of diversity and individualism, some have found freedom from oppressive authority by living sustainably. This dual blow to the environmental crisis and the ruling authorities has led me to wonder how far-reaching the ripple effect from sustainable living can be. Could, for example, a sustainable lifestyle promote Native autonomy by fostering economic, legal, and social independence? In what ways can struggling communities be empowered through an environmentally sustainable architecture? In reviewing these questions, I choose to focus on Canada’s Aboriginal Peoples for two main reasons. The first is that they’re often made up of marginalized communities who have expressed a need, a desire, and a right to be self-governing. The second is that Aboriginal cosmologies and spiritual values often (at least nominally) place emphasis on harmonious unity and interaction with nature, indicating a particular interest in living out sustainable solutions. Although moving towards a more environmentally friendly life would certainly be to the benefit of all, I argue that minorities and marginalized peoples in particular may find advantage in pioneering the new frontiers of environmental learning. 1

I.

Sustainability

A chief concept in environment discourse is that of sustainability. According to the Brundtland Commission, sustainability is formulated as “… meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”(Smyth, 2011:77) This definition is very general, but it can be concretized through looking at examples and cases. My research so far hasn’t led me to find any direct examples of sustainably living and autonomy in Aboriginal communities, although there must surely be some case studies somewhere when 125 out of 203 First Nations in British Columbia are involved in projects relating to renewable energy.(The Vancouver Sun, 2013) At this point I focus less on the methodology of sustainable living and more on exploring reasons for or against it. In other words, I’m currently more about the “why” than the “how”. Unless you possess a holistic mindset, it may be difficult to understand what sustainability has to do with empowerment and independence. To explain the connection, it could be helpful to point out the opposite situation where unsustainable living is a cause of oppression. Take for example the description by Bruce Johansen (2003) on the struggle between the Cree and Hydro-Quebec starting in the 70s. The plans of the hydro-electric company were claimed to be sustainable, but in practice their creation of reservoirs and dams required the burning of forests, causing greenhouse gases as well as methyl mercury contamination through earthmoving. At one point Cree people were measured to have 20 times the safe level of mercury in their blood, as their main subsistence was (now contaminated) fish. Cree title was the main obstacle for Hydro-Quebec’s expansion in the region, and they did have some success in resisting. In the end, however, their environment was destroyed to the extent that they could no longer subsist off of local resources, and subsequently had to look for jobs. Their 70-80% unemployment rate was indirectly caused by Hydro-Quebec, and accompanied by a suicide epidemic. 2

Destroying their environment and subsistence is what finally caused the Cree to cave in to the hydro-electric company. Their autonomy was destroyed by forcing them into the current economic system. The author makes a clear connection between environmental destruction and human rights: “Canada often prides itself on an allegedly humane civil-rights record regarding indigenous peoples (First Nations), but it has become a major source of indigenous environmental contamination and conflict.”(Johansen, 2003:66) It would be reasonable to conclude that if autonomy can be destroyed through ruining the environment, then surely it can be safeguarded or augmented by protecting the same. I’ve realized through research, however, that such a conclusion would be an oversimplification. Most likely there will be instances where long term and short term interests clash. Michael M’Gonigle (1988) shows how issues relating to Native rights and environmental preservation can coincide, while at the same time acknowledging the possibility that they may differ. In this case local Indian bands collaborated with environmental groups to protect the the Stein Valley, a roughly 1000km2 watershed that has been of concern to environment preservationists since the 1970s and a sacred place for the Nlaka’pamux (Thompson Band) for 7,000 years. Despite their unified resistance against the government and the logging industry, the interests of Natives would sometimes diverge from those of activists, and sometimes match. A public committee that was issued early on had the responsibility of overseeing environmental effects only, without any regard for Native interests. As local bands came to be included in the struggle, they joined forces, and began to employ a number of clever strategies to promote their cause, such as going through the media, building tourism to impress a sense of cultural heritage in the region, and discreetly filing land claims, organizing a range of land surveys and report reviews that ultimately indicated the logging projects were not only environmentally harmful, but even economically unfeasible. (M’Gonigle, 1988) 3

II.

Environment in Aboriginal Cosmology

It was the synthesis of Native claims and environment defenders that finally led to victory in the preservation of the Stein Valley in 1995.(BC MOE, 2013) In this particular case the legal, financial, and environmental interests between two parties came together just enough to create a unified movement. But can we be sure that environment protection and Native interests will continue to coincide? In saying that Aboriginal Peoples tend to live in harmony with nature, aren’t we simply generalizing and romanticizing the Indian image? These are the questions I struggled with, and at this point I’d say the answer is both ‘yes’ and ‘no’. While it is certainly true that a number of Aboriginal individuals don’t live in a sustainable manner, the environment does nevertheless feature heavily into a lot of Native cosmology and religion. Tim Ingold (2000) shows for instance how the Koyukon in Alaska and the Cree in Canada emphasize oneness with nature in the literal sense. Whereas social scientists have argued that nature is a cultural construct, Ingold turns the argument on its head by pointing to cosmologies that see culture and nature as a single whole, not in a metaphorical sense, but as the reality. We find a similar argument with Leroy Little Bear (1998), who contrasts Native philosophy with that of Western thought. He explains that Natives (at least the Ojibwa, Blackfoot, and Cree) consider reality as an interconnected whole. When they say “‘I am the environment, for the land and me are the same” (Little Bear, 1998:15) they are referring to a fundamental unity of nature and man. This cosmology might at the very least give incentive to preservation of the environment, a point that is not lost on all non-Native thinkers: To me, willingness to take such aboriginal notions of the sanctity of nature very seriously – and to learn from them – is hardly, as some critics would claim, a regressive retreat to ‘primitive’ mysticism. Rather, it offers a potential wellspring of wisdom, often compatible with science, about the proper place of Homo Sapiens in nature. (Knudtson, 1991:92).

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Acknowledging the arguments presented above, it would still be unreasonable to assume that members of Aboriginal communities should all consign to the same ecological vision and feel inclined to adapt their lifestyle accordingly. From what I’ve observed, these communities are by no means immune to the destructive forces of financial corruption, substance abuse, and violence that plague the rest of society. If change is to come from the grassroots (as I believe it should), there has to be other incentives in addition to cosmology that encourage mass participation in green movements.

III.

Incentives for Sustainable Life

Besides cosmology, health, economic benefits, spirituality, and a desire for autonomy can also serve as motivations for sustainable living. These incentives are interconnected and mutually influential. In a TED Talk Winona LaDuke (2012) who is Ojibwa illustrates their connection. A central point she makes is that plants are the relatives of man. She cites numerous examples of Indigenous communities that have been victorious in the resistance towards bigger companies’ attempts to genetically modify or patent foods. This is important because more and more foods are owned by fewer and fewer people. Until about 100 years ago, the Ojibwa were self-sufficient. LaDuke deplores the loss of this autonomy, saying “I don’t know how to quantify the cultural grief associated with loss of your most ancient varieties [of food].”(LaDuke, 2012:10.30mins) The Ojibwa themselves are now spending 8 million dollars each year on food, of which 7 million are used to buy food from outside the reservation. According to her estimation, this constitutes about one fourth of the total tribal economy. LaDuke finally states that going organic on the local level also means reestablishing connection with ancestors, indicating what I understand to be spiritual and cultural aspects of sustainable living. 5

It is perhaps in recognition of this interconnectedness that Taiaiake Alfred and Jeff Corntassel propose that Indigenous peoples find restoration through decolonizing their diet. …our people must regain the self-sufficient capacity to provide our own food, clothing, shelter and medicines. Ultimately important to the struggle for freedom is the reconstitution of our own sick and weakened physical bodies and community relationships accomplished through a return to the natural sources of food and the active, hard-working, physical lives lived by our ancestors…(Taiaiake & Corntassel, 2011:613)

This is one among a number of strategies against colonialism that they suggest, and it indicates a clear connection between the natural production of food and Indigenous autonomy. I’ve found it difficult to define this connection exactly, probably because everything is connected to everything else. I’ve considered the possibility that economic independence is primarily what leads to other forms of autonomy, and have speculated that commercial relations play a major part in making Indigenous peoples dependent on the State. But Maurice Bloch and Jonathan Parry (1989) explain that the effects of a monetary economy on social relations are contested. On one end you have thinkers like Marx stating that money is destructive to community ties, or Aristotle proclaiming that the pursuit of profit causes imbalance in nature. One the other you have figures like Adam Smith claiming that society prospers when its individuals are seeking wealth and self-gain. Of course there are a number of theorists in between those extremes. In comparison to these thinkers from the Western philosophical tradition, the approaches of Native peoples can be similar and different. A similarity is that they evaluate the immorality of excessive consumption, and laud economization. A difference is that

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restraint is encouraged not only by theoretical moral codes, but through rituals and practices such as the burning of sacrifice.(Bierhorst, 1994) IV.

Legitimacy of Autonomy

My original supposition that financial liberation is what promotes autonomy may still be true, but I now find it more realistic to consider the economy a part of a complex whole rather than the primary agent for social change. I would contend that autonomy can be affirmed and strengthened through many different ways, including juridical means, popular opinion, scientific backing, political acknowledgment, and/or religious justification. As long as any of these channels support environmentally friendly initiatives, they will enable Indigenous groups to stand stronger against governments and corporations by living sustainably. To give some examples, political and legal legitimacy can come from international organizations such as the United Nations. The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development urges the nations of the world to enter a global partnership in a collective effort to “…conserve, protect and restore the health and integrity of the Earth's ecosystem.”(UN, 1992:2) It seems possible that international institutions and NGOs would commend any effort to live sustainably and that this support could extend to other political areas, such as promoting the global recognition of Aboriginal nationhood and sovereignty. Meanwhile the scientific community is also likely to show support, as over 97 % of scientists believe that global temperature changes are induced by human activity.(Schneider, Harold, Prall, Anderegg, 2010) The effects of global warming could be disastrous, and are perhaps best prevented by changes in lifestyle. Scientific consensus can in turn push popular opinion in different directions. I think it reasonable to suppose there would be endorsement of Aboriginal initiatives from a great number of environmentally concerned citizens.

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Religious backing could for example happen through the perception of Aboriginal peoples as unifiers of spirituality and environmental preservation. Those who subscribe to such beliefs may consider Natives to be custodians or guardians of the earth.(Kelly, 2008) V.

Enmity or Amity

Any successful enterprise is sure to meet with opposition as well. One major potential obstacle I’ve considered is the reaction of the government. Would it be negative? If so, why? Most likely the problem would not be the sharing of land. Fredrik Barth (1956) studied Swat Pathan peoples in the highlands of Afghanistan, and found that different groups can live together on the same land under separate leadership as long as their ecological needs are different. This means that Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal peoples and governments should be able to co-exist, especially if the former live off of a separate means of sustenance. The real issue, I think, is whether Native autonomy would detract from the power and authority of the government, or worse, result in its financial detriment. Even if Aboriginal green movements result in long term environmental and financial benefits for both parties, there is always a risk that the short term interests of the government take precedent. After all, the essential question to ask is not about Native interests, according to Thomas King, but rather “What do whites want?”(King, 2013:216)

Conclusion I have argued that sustainable living can be used to strengthen the autonomy of Indigenous peoples. It’s a sort of “several birds, one stone” approach where a change in lifestyle could have environmental, political, legal, economic, social, health, and spiritual benefits. I chose to focus specifically on Canada’s Aboriginal peoples because they seem to 8

have a cosmological framework that encourages sustainable living, and because they are often marginalized peoples who seek means of restoration. If Aboriginal communities show interest in this idea, I’m convinced a practical method of approach could be devised.

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Sources Books -

Bierhorst, John. The Way of the Earth; Native America and the Environment. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1994.

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Bloch, Maurice and Parry, Jonathan. Introduction to Money and the Morality of Exchange. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.

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Chief Seattle. How can one sell the air? Chief Seattle’s Vision. Tennessee: The Book Publishing Company, 1992. (Quote from P.47).

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Johansen, Bruce E. Indigenous Peoples and Environmental Issues: An Encyclopedia. USA: Greenwood Press, 2003.

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King, Thomas. The Inconvenient Indian: A Curious Account of Native People in North America. Canada: Anchor Canada, 2013.

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Knudtson, Peter M. A Mirror to Nature: Reflections on Science, Scientists, and Society. Toronto: Stoddart, 1991.

Articles -

Barth, Fredrik. ‘Ecologic relationships of ethnic groups in Swat, North Pakistan.’ In American Anthropologist Vol.58, pp.1079–1089. 1956.

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Corntassel, Jeff and Taiaiake, Alfred. “Being Indigenous.” In Racism, Colonialism and Indigeneity in Canada, pp.139-145. Eds. Martin Cannon & Linda Sunseri. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.

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Ingold, T, 1996. Hunting and Gathering as Ways of Perceiving the Environment, In Redefining Nature: Ecology, Culture and Domestication, pp.117-155. Eds. R. Ellen & K. Fukui. Oxford: Berg, 1996.

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Kelly, Fred. ‘Confessions of a Born Again Pagan.’ In From Truth to Reconciliation, pp.11-42. Eds. Marlene Brant Castellano, Linda Archibald, Mike DeGagne. Ottawa: Aboriginal Healing Foundation, 2008.

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Little Bear, Leroy. ‘Aboriginal Relationships to the Land and Resources.’ Sacred Lands: Aboriginal World Views, Claims, and Conflicts, pp.15-19. Eds. Jill Elizabeth Oakes et al. Winnipeg: Canadian Circumpolar Institute, 1998.

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M'Gonigle, R. Michael. ‘Native Rights and Environmental Sustainability: Lessons from the British Columbia Wilderness.’ In Canadian Journal of Native Studies 8(1), pp.107-130. Canada: Simon Fraser University, 1988.

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Smyth, Luke. ‘Anthropological Critiques of Sustainable Development.’ In Crosssections: The Bruce Hall Academic Journal, Vol. 7, pp.77-85. 2011.

Internet -

British Columbia Ministry of Environment. 2013. ‘Stein Valley Nlaka’pamux Heritage Park.’ http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/bcparks/explore/parkpgs/stein_val/ (Retrieved 13.Dec 2013)

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LaDuke, Winona. 4. March 2012. ‘Seeds of Our Ancestors, Seeds of Life.’ On TEDxTC. Minneapolis. Lecture. http://tedxtalks.ted.com/video/TEDxTC-WinonaLaDuke-Seeds-of-O (Retrieved 13.Dec 2013)

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Schneider, Stephen H. & Harold, Jacob & Prall, James W. & Anderegg, William R. L. 2010. ‘Expert credibility in climate change.’ http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2010/06/04/1003187107.full.pdf (Retrieved 13.Dec 2013)

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United Nations. 1992. ‘Rio Declaration on Environment and Development.’ http://www.jus.uio.no/lm/environmental.development.rio.declaration.1992/portrait.a4. pdf (Retrieved 13.Dec 2013)

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The Vancouver Sun. 2013. ‘Include First Nations in renewable energy sector.’ http://www.vancouversun.com/business/Include+First+Nations+renewable+energy+s ector/9085017/story.html (Retrieved 13.Dec 2013)

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