A Comprehensive discussion on Cash-in-Transit Robbery

CMY4803 PORTPOLIO

A Comprehensive discussion on Cash-inTransit Robbery: A Contemporary crime phenomenon in the South African Context Hannes Koekemoer 1/9/2015

Cash in transit heists and robberies have been popularised by recent movie trends, The Italian job (2003), the Fast and the furious franchise (2001 – 2015) and many other pop culture films. The films are usually depicted from the criminal’s perspective and are unrealistic in that there are many explosions but no casualties. In reality Cash-in-transit robberies are violent, messy and result in loss of life and a lot of money. This paper will discuss Cash-in-transit (CIT) robbery as a contemporary criminological issue in South Africa

1

Table of Contents 1.

Introduction ................................................................................................................. 3

2.

Definitions.................................................................................................................... 4

3.

Nature and Extent of Crime ......................................................................................... 6

3.1.

Nature of Crime ........................................................................................................... 6

3.2.

Current status in South Africa ..................................................................................... 7

3.3.

Global trends ............................................................................................................... 7

4.

Characteristics of the perpetrators – The Robbers ..................................................... 8

5.

Characteristics of Victims – The Target ....................................................................... 9

6.

Modus Operandi – The Job........................................................................................ 10

7.

Causes ........................................................................................................................ 12

8.

Explanation of Crime ................................................................................................. 13

8.1.

Robbery as parasitic consumption ............................................................................ 14

8.1.1.

Theoretical premises ................................................................................................. 14

8.1.2.

Real-world application ............................................................................................... 14

8.2.

Rational Choice Theory .............................................................................................. 15

8.2.1.

Theoretical premises ................................................................................................. 15

8.2.2.

Real-world application ............................................................................................... 15

8.3.

Social Learning Theory ............................................................................................... 16

8.3.1.

Theoretical premises ................................................................................................. 16

8.3.2.

Real-world application ............................................................................................... 17

9.

Adjudication............................................................................................................... 17

9.1.

SAPS Involvement ...................................................................................................... 18

9.2.

The Court Process ...................................................................................................... 18

9.3.

Incarceration, Rehabilitation and Correctional Services ........................................... 19

Hannes Koekemoer| 4576-965-6| CMY4803: Portfolio A Comprehensive discussion on Cash-in-Transit Robbery: A Contemporary crime phenomenon in the South African Context

2 10.

Prevention ................................................................................................................. 20

10.1.

Transit........................................................................................................................ 20

10.2.

Cash Banking System ................................................................................................. 21

10.3.

Pick-up/Drop-off of Cash ........................................................................................... 22

11.

Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 23

12.

Bibliography ............................................................................................................... 24

Hannes Koekemoer| 4576-965-6| CMY4803: Portfolio A Comprehensive discussion on Cash-in-Transit Robbery: A Contemporary crime phenomenon in the South African Context

3

1.

Introduction

Cash in transit heists and robberies have been popularised by recent movie trends, The Italian job (2003), the Fast and the furious franchise (2001 – 2015) and many other pop culture films. The films are usually depicted from the criminal’s perspective and are unrealistic in that there are many explosions but no casualties. In reality Cash-in-transit robberies are violent, messy and result in loss of life and a lot of money. This paper will discuss Cash-in-transit (CIT) robbery as a contemporary criminological issue in South Africa. Although recent crime statistics show a reduction in CIT robberies over the past five years, the crime is still labelled as one of the most violent and most financially crippling. The SAPS, SA Bank Risk Information Centre (SABRIC), Cash Risk Identification and Mitigating Project (CRIM), Business Against Crime SA (BAC SA) together with private security companies like G4s, Fidelity and SBV service have all joined forces to establish effect prevention methods, to reduce he opportunity and the socio-economic effects of CIT heists. The discussion will be from a comprehensive view point address all points of crime and criminality involved in CIT robberies. The paper will first discuss the Nature and extent of the crime both locally in South Africa and review CIT heists on a global front. The Characteristic of the perpetrator (the robber) and the victim (the target) will be addressed. From that point the paper will focus on the Modus Operandi, the Causes of the Crime and the theoretical explanation of CIT heists. The final part of the paper will discuss the adjudication and prevention.

Hannes Koekemoer| 4576-965-6| CMY4803: Portfolio A Comprehensive discussion on Cash-in-Transit Robbery: A Contemporary crime phenomenon in the South African Context

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2.

Definitions

2.1. Aggravating circumstances In Criminal law it defines any circumstance pertaining to a particular criminal act and the criminal that makes the latter more dangerous for society thus impedes a more severe punishment. (The Gale Group, 2011). In S v Maswetsa (2013) paragraph one, the state outline that aggravating circumstances are additions to the crime, specific to the event that worsen the impact or damaged caused by the offender, like use of force, us of a knife and the attempt to assault or batter. For this Paper Aggravating circumstances will be defined as any crime or criminal specific circumstance or factor that increases or had increased the risk and danger to victims or bystanders. 2.2. Bank Robbery The Institute of Security Studies (ISS) defines bank robberies as the unlawful and deliberate acquisition of money from a Bank, in which the money belongs to the bank and the robbery is done within the said banks business hours (SAPS, 2013; ISS, 2014a). For this paper a more simplistic definition will be used, the illegal and intentional taking of money from any banking system. 2.3. Cash-In-Transit (CIT) The Australian Institute for Criminology first defines Cash-in-transit as the transport, delivery and receipt of cash using escort services like armoured vehicles (Smith & Louis, 2010). 2.4. Cash-in-Transit Robbery According to the Statistical Analysis report by SAPS (2013) Cash-in-transit (CIT) robbery can be define as the unlawful and intentional forceful removal and appropriation of money or containers for the conveyance of money, belonging to another while such money or containers for the conveyance of money are being transported by a security company on behalf of the owner thereof.” The Institute for Security studies (ISS) uses the same definition and states that the definition is based on the Criminal Procedure Act, 1977 (Act 51 of 1977) (ISS, 2014a). The robbery of CIT is generally associated with multiple offenders planning the heist, armed with firearms and who are seeking large financial gain (Smith & Louis, 2010). Hannes Koekemoer| 4576-965-6| CMY4803: Portfolio A Comprehensive discussion on Cash-in-Transit Robbery: A Contemporary crime phenomenon in the South African Context

5 For the argument of this paper Cash-in-Transit robbery will be defined as the illegal and deliberate robbery of money while the money is in its transit cycle. 2.5. Economic Crimes Accroding to the USLegal (2011) Economic crimes can be defined as the illegal acts committed by an individual or a group of individuals to obtain a financial; where the main motive is financial gain. 2.7. Organised Crime According to Shaw (1998) organised crime syndicated in South Africa all share common characteristics: I.

A hierarchy of control, with clearly designated systems of promotion and payment;

II.

Sophisticated procedures, often via legitimate business interests, to launder money obtained by means of illegal activities; and

III.

The use of weapons to ensure that `business' routes are protected and potential competitors eliminated

Gastrow (2001) defined organised crime as a structured group of three or more people, existing for a period of time and acting together with intent to committing one or more serious crimes or offences in order to financial benefit. 1) Section 2 of the South African Police Service Amendment Act 57 of 2008 defines organised (a) by a person, group of persons or syndicate acting in— (i) an organised fashion; or (ii) a manner which could result in substantial financial gain for the person, group of persons or syndicate involved.

For the context of this paper organised crime will be defined as any group of people, who conspire, plan and/or act together to commit an unlawful and deliberate offence for the acquisition of direct or indirect financial gain. 2.8. Robbery Draper (2004) defines robbery as the act of stealing from another person by means of coercion, violence of threat of violence. According to the South African Crime analysis report of 2012/2013 robbery can be defined as “the unlawful and intentional forceful removal and appropriation of movable tangible property belonging to another” (SAPS, 2013). Hannes Koekemoer| 4576-965-6| CMY4803: Portfolio A Comprehensive discussion on Cash-in-Transit Robbery: A Contemporary crime phenomenon in the South African Context

6 According to Laywers.com (2015) an online legal advice website robbery is explained to have four main elements for any person to be found guilty of suck offence: •

Takes property from its rightful owner

•

Acts without the owner's permission

•

Intends to steal property

•

Uses force or intimidation against the owner

For the purpose of this paper robbery will be defined as the illegal and deliberate act of taking property (Cash) from its legal owner of custodian with violent force or coercion. The word Heist will be associated with the act of committing robbery by a group of professionals in the intent to obtain large scales of valuables like money.

3.

Nature and Extent of Crime

Cash-in-transit (CIT) robberies or heists are global phenomenon; almost always the crime is associated with organised crime syndicates. CIT robberies can be traced back as far as 400BC in the Roman Empire; the crime back them was based on two main factors the transport of Goods and the illegal acquisition of the Goods (Coetzer, 2007). The extent and the violence of the crimes grew to such an extent that some of the Caesars imposed strict military policing as means of curbing the crime. The CIT has been depicted throughout history and as technology advanced so did the nature and extent of the crime. Locally and abroad CIT has become a multibillion Rand industry both in the protection and the illegal acquisition thereof.

3.1.

Nature of Crime

Smith and Louis (2010) stated that the incidents in South Africa shows that there are two main type of Cash-in-transit armed robberies. The first type is cross-pavement attacks, these take place outside of the vehicle transporting the money, and the guards/drivers are usaul targeted while cash is in transition to the vehicle, the second type of attack is a “heist” in which the vehicle is attacked while moving (Smith & Louis, 2010). The use illegal firearms or stollen firearms are a certainty, there is a sharp increase in the violence of armed robberies with assault rifles being the prefered weapon of choice (Hennop, 2003). Hennop (2003) also explains that the Nature of CIT robberies are different and unique from hijackings and bank Hannes Koekemoer| 4576-965-6| CMY4803: Portfolio A Comprehensive discussion on Cash-in-Transit Robbery: A Contemporary crime phenomenon in the South African Context

7 robberies; continues that the following features as typical of a CIT robbery, Low level of concealment, force is displayed overtly, little attempt to minimise public witnesses, and rifles are used to hand guns (preference for greater firepower) (Hennop, 2003).

3.2.

Current status in South Africa

According to the crime statistics from the South African Police Service (SAPS) taken from the financial year of 2004/2005 until 2013/2014 CIT crimes have been a problem for more than 10 years, the crimes peaked during the 2006/2007 with 467 cases per annum and remained exceptionally high at an average of 402 reported cases per annum (SAPS, 2014b). During 2010/2011 there was a strong decrease in the crime statistics and the decreases continued, this was can be contributed to the joint ventures between the banking system and the private security sector (Cash Connect Management Solutions, 2013). According to the SAPS (2014) statistics for the 2013/2014 financial year there was a total 145 cases of CIT that were reported. The provinces with the highest number of reported cases are Gauteng and KwaZulu-Natal (SAPS, 2014b). According to the ISS there has been no change in CIT robberies between 2012/2013 and 2013/2014, but states an alarming fact that Bank robberies have increased by 200% from seven incidents to 21 (ISS, 2014b).

3.3.

Global trends

According to research done by Smith and Louis (2010) shows that South Africa and United Kingdom (UK) has considerable risks in CIT robberies; In 2005 the UK had a total number of 763 reported cases of CIT robberies. While South African on the other had experienced a total number of 509 for the same year (SAPS, 2014b). Altough CIT robberies have not reached the perportions of the UK and South Africa as in Australia; the dramatic increase in incidents and the violence involved in this crime has become an ever increasing concern for the country (Smith & Louis, 2010). According to the Brazalian Federation of Bank (Febraban) in 2009 the country lost $30 Million due to bank robberies and Cash-in-transit robberies (Smith, 2010). Febraban state that money stolen in a CIT robbery rarely exceed $300 000.00 but in some cases like an incident that happended on the 5 th of November 2009 where a total of $4 Million was stolen (Smith, 2010). In Brazil 10% of all bank robberies are directed at armoured vehicles and cash in transit (Smith, 2010). Hannes Koekemoer| 4576-965-6| CMY4803: Portfolio A Comprehensive discussion on Cash-in-Transit Robbery: A Contemporary crime phenomenon in the South African Context

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4.

Characteristics of the perpetrators – The Robbers

In research done by Smith and Louis (2010) it was found that there are three main typologies of Cash-in-transit offenders amateurs, intermediate and professional offenders. The three main categories are determined, by the risk-to-yield ratio, the criminal history of the offender and the level of planning and execution of the robbery (Smith & Louis, 2010). Hennop (2003) and Phillips (2014) noted that one of the major features of South African CIT robberies is that they almost always use Assault rifles, thus must be regarded as heavily armed offenders. Smith and Louis (2010) explained that Amateur armed robbers tend to be solely opportunistic, with short-sighted intentions and lack understanding and experience in what is to be expected from the Robbery situation, while Intermediate offenders are on average more organised have slightly more experience, but lacks the dedication of a professional armed robber. Schönteich and Louw (2001:6) noted that in South Africa CIT robberies are usually closely linked to organised crime syndicates. In the Herman Goldstein Awards presentation Hunter and Broxson (2011:8) explained that research found that CIT offenders have multiple offences against them, and most where linked to some form of organised crimes. It was also found that the offenders where highly motivated even with probability of being caught, as well as having an increased disposition to use violence. The same conclusion was found by Prosegur’s (2014) road safety tribunal submission (Australia) report into the cash in transit industry; Prosegur’s research found that CIT offenders are usually committed by professional, recidivist armed robbers and the robberies are predominantly planned and organised, and are violent in nature (Prosegur, 2014). As stated by Hennop (2003) and the research done by both Smith and Louis (2010) and Hunter and Broxson (2011) we can assume that the CIT armed robbers in South Africa can be seen as Professional Offenders, with a high probability of being linked to multiple crimes and a greater organised crime syndicate. In S v Zibi, and others (2008) in which five men robbed a Fidelity Cash truck, it is clearly visible that all of the accused had been charged will multiple counts of robbery with aggravating circumstances and that each of the accused had multiple prior cases. Hannes Koekemoer| 4576-965-6| CMY4803: Portfolio A Comprehensive discussion on Cash-in-Transit Robbery: A Contemporary crime phenomenon in the South African Context

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5.

Characteristics of Victims – The Target

Smith and Louis (2010) mentioned three main factors associated with target selection in their research, location, time and general overview of target. Location is in repsect of the location of cash in the transit route and the geographics of the area; in their research it was found that area’s that had more ‘space’ in between pick up points where more likely to be targeted, as well as pick ups at banking and commercial areas, that more dense commercial areas (Smith & Louis, 2010). According to Smith and Louis (2010) CIT Offenders are even selective on the time of the robbery, the statistical findings showed that most of the robberies took place in between 09h00 and 11h59. The final factor in target selection is the general overview of the target; this is a process of analysing the target and will include the employed preventative measures. The type of vehicle, the skill level of guards (physical appearance), whether the guards are armed, if any cash marking/degrading systems are being used (Smith & Louis, 2010). In the report by Prosegur (2014) the following target criteria was highlighted: 1) A poor street presence by CIT employees. Poor street presence includes: a) guards not clearing the immediate area; b) guards being inattentive to their surrounds; c) non-adherence to operating procedures – for example, two armed guards walking close together instead of maintaining their distance and one guard having a position of dominance; and d) Gun hands not being free, for example, guards who carry the liability or radio in their gun hand. 2) Single person operators who are easier to attack 3) Companies using equipment not fit for purpose and thereby lowering the perceived risk and increasing offender perceptions of likely reward. For example, offenders generally view soft skin operations as softer targets than armoured vans 4) Unarmed CIT operations versus armed CIT operations 5) The overall site dynamics including parking locations, escape routes, and concealment points Hannes Koekemoer| 4576-965-6| CMY4803: Portfolio A Comprehensive discussion on Cash-in-Transit Robbery: A Contemporary crime phenomenon in the South African Context

10 6) The customer being serviced in terms of assessing the probability of high reward versus low reward In research done by Draper (2004: 16) he developed a decision tree to explain the possible thought process of offenders who commit robberies, he also explained that the decision tree can be applied to CIT robberies as the same basic priciples apply:

7) 8)

6.

Figure 1: Chapter 1: Lessons in Danger. Draper, 2004 page 16

Modus Operandi – The Job

Morrison and O'Donnell (1996) noted that the modus operandi of robbers may embody a simple structure to a full detailed plan and execution strategy. Morrison and O’Donnell (1996) outlined basic points about the Modus Operandi (MO) of robbers most of the decisions taken where more along a practical sense that a thought out MO. The time of the robberies are carefully selected to limit to possible witnesses and possible interruption in Hannes Koekemoer| 4576-965-6| CMY4803: Portfolio A Comprehensive discussion on Cash-in-Transit Robbery: A Contemporary crime phenomenon in the South African Context

11 their plan. Morrison and O’Donnell (1996) also noted that the robbers have to find the window of vulnerability, the timeframe of space in which there are flaws in the security system to ease their operations. According to Febraban and the Brazilian police three main trends exists regarding the Modus operandi of the robbers (Smith, 2010: 2). The first trend involves vehicle in transit heist, robbers planning heists on one of the major highways that connect smaller towns with the state capital; researched found that robbers seldom attack on urban roads (Smith, 2010). Smith (2010: 2) explains that the second trend involves planning a heist while the vehicle in stationary position; attacking the CIT Vehicle while it is refuelling, this is usually in dense urban areas. The third trend is to intercept the vehicle while it is busy with a cash drop (Smith, 2010: 2). In a presentation that Albert Erasmus did in Bratislava at the 2012 ESTA Business Conference, Exhibition and General Assembly on The Cash-In-Transit (CIT) Industry in South Africa (SA): It’s challenges and solutions, Erasmus elaborated on the Modus Operandi of South African CIT robberies and Cross pavement Carrier robberies (Erasmus, 2012). Erasmus (2012: 28 - 29) highlights the key aspects of the CIT robber’s Modus operandi: 1. Explosives were used to access the cabin from the rear of the vehicle, whereupon the vault area was attacked. 2. Attacks on armoured vehicles: measures used to gain access to the vehicle: a. The use of petrol as an element of force b. after the AV had been brought to a standstill, petrol was poured over the vehicle and it was set alight and the guard sustained serious injuries c. In 2006 (first in SA), the AV was set alight and all the guards were killed as a result 3. The use of law enforcement uniforms as well as ‘blue lights’: a. to ensure no/minimal resistance from the guards b. speedy getaway c. employed to gain access to cash holding facilities 4. Gaining access to CIT premises under false pretences was also reported, with perpetrators posing as maintenance workers. Hannes Koekemoer| 4576-965-6| CMY4803: Portfolio A Comprehensive discussion on Cash-in-Transit Robbery: A Contemporary crime phenomenon in the South African Context

12 5. The use of explosives directed at either cash vans or cash holding facilities meticulous planning involved in carrying out an attack of this nature (Erasmus, 2012: 28 - 29) Erasmus (2012: 27) noted that Offenders will use water to deactivate, or counteract the dye and security systems in cross pavement carriers. Phillips (2014) outlines certain aspects of CIT robberies and the robbers in South Africa; explain that the modus operandi of CIT robber and other robberies differ completely. He mentions the following points in respect of CIT robberies:

7.



The incidents are violent; any obstruction will be met with violence.



The robbers are organised in large groups (average of 15)



They use Assault rifles with ease and confidence



They seek cash and seldom act without proper planning (gather intelligence)



The attacks are fast and efficient (Hit-and-run in 3 minutes)

Causes of Crime

There are many different causes of robberies, and armed robberies. For the purpose of this paper the causes of robbery as crime will be explained and then how these factors are tied into CIT robberies. Robbery in general is one of the most common crimes; the crime is usually motivated by the prospects of gain versus the possibility of being caught. The assumption can be made in regards to large scale robberies that the larger the prospects of gain, the larger the risks and threat of being caught. There are many socioeconomic factors that can affect someone, than can cause them to lead a life of crime. May (2011) elaborated on five key social economic points in her master dissertation on aggravated robbery, namely poverty (both absolute and relative), inequality, unemployment, crime and the use of illegal firearms and intoxication substances. Poverty is a socioeconomic factor that cannot be seen in isolation from other factors, most of the socioeconomic factors are interwoven into each other (May, 2011). If a person is unemployed s/he will experience social strain, feel life in unfair (inequality), experience additional stress, have lack of available resources and after a while s/he will start to experience poverty. These social strains may cause the individual to seek other means of Hannes Koekemoer| 4576-965-6| CMY4803: Portfolio A Comprehensive discussion on Cash-in-Transit Robbery: A Contemporary crime phenomenon in the South African Context

13 survival or coping – substance abuse and crime is on the top of the list. May (2011) explains that aggravating robbery has great monetary gain and immediate gratification, making it very desirable to commit. With respects CIT robberies the gain is much higher that common robbery, but also the risks involved are much higher, all CIT robberies involve the use of illegal fire arms as this increase the success rate of the heist (May, 2011: 27; Phillips, 2014). May (2011) explained that offenders who commit Aggravating Robbery tend to use intoxicating substances to give them ‘guts’ or ‘Dutch-courage’; the intoxication take away the anxiety that the offender is experiecing before the robbery is to take place. Other factors that can cause a person to commit such offence are peer pressure and group think. As stated Phillips (2014) CIT robberies are done in large groups, in which a plan is orchestrated and everyone in the group is expected or coerced in partaking. The concept of group think comes greatly into play. Groupthink can be seen as a phenomenon in which decision are made as a collective and decisions are usually made without any contesting of choices (Investopedia, 2014). Groupthink is also called a collective will or ‘group will’ and is defined by decisions made to benefit the collective, the intent of actions are also in benefit of the group, and all group members are liable as co-conspirators (Ohlin, 2007: 150 - 151). In S v Zibi, and others (2008) the concept of groupthink and acting in total benefit of the group is visible, all the accused involved followed the plan, and during the course of execution all members acted in benefit of the group and not on individual reasoning. The concept of Groupthink under CIT robberies are somewhat concerning because mostly the groups and attacks are orchestrated by a ‘leader’ and no decision is contested.

8.

Explanation of Crime

To give the theoretical explanation of CIT robberies, the paper will discuss some of the prevalent and strong arguments in explaining robberies as general. The discussion will look at the premises of each theory, their real world application to CIT and whether they are plausible in their explanations.

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8.1.

Robbery as parasitic consumption

The idea that crime rates rise and fall as the economic conditions worsen or improve have a long historical background in criminology (Rosenfeld & Fornango, 2007). Offenders subsist on the income and consumption of others (Rosenfeld & Fornango, 2007). 8.1.1. Theoretical premises The theory of Robbery as parasitic consumption is based on the general economic conditions of a country and the means of how the unemployed survive in these conditions (Rosenfeld & Fornango, 2007). Rosenfeld and Fornango (2007) hypothesised that social- and economic- theories predict the illegal consumption will increase as legal opportunities decrease. The theory is approached from an economic perspective and sociological perspective. The economic perspective explains that offenders seek alternative methods of financial gain when legal opportunities are exhausted, and that offenders respond to the cost versus benefit of each opportunity (Criminal or not) (Rosenfeld & Fornango, 2007). The sociological perspective makes the assumption that offenders use rational decision making involving the cost and benefits of non-confirmative behaviour. In essence if a person is no longer able to join the work force or a certain socio class, he will feel social exclusion and experience anomie, the person will also experience social disorganisation because he is no longer part of his previous social class (Rosenfeld & Fornango, 2007). Theory also includes Consumer sentiment on the general economic conditions and the effects it has on crime rates. If consumer’s perception of the general economic conditions is poor the crime rate will be high. 8.1.2. Real-world application Rosenfeld and Fornango’s (2007) research into the effects of the general economic status of a country gave a good explanation on why offenders easily revert to robbery and property crime, but how does it tie in with CIT Robberies. South Africa is a country with a wide demographic pallet and even wide socioeconomic distribution. CIT offenders act out the same desires to experience financial stability. Due to the high rewards involved CIT heists and robberies, it has become a ‘legitimate’ means of acquiring large sums of money. The opportunities for legal methods of gaining money are limited, and unskilled labours are feeling the most of it. These factors fall straight into the parasitic consumption model, with Hannes Koekemoer| 4576-965-6| CMY4803: Portfolio A Comprehensive discussion on Cash-in-Transit Robbery: A Contemporary crime phenomenon in the South African Context

15 CIT being the most profitable method in relation to common robbery and burglary. One point of difference between CIT robberies and common robbery is that the greater the consumer index and consumer sentiment, the more cash will be in transit. This will increase the opportunities for cash in transit heists to occur.

8.2.

Rational Choice Theory

It is a common fallacy that criminals are irrational beings that act solely on impulse and immediate gratification; although some offenders do act opportunistic it does not mean that they had no rational consciousness when making the decision to commit the crime. The rational choice theory views the offender as reasoning actor (De Haan & Vos, 2003). 8.2.1. Theoretical premises Myers (2010) explains that rational choice focuses on the opportunity to commit crime and on how criminal choices are structured by the social environment and situational variables. The rational choice theory is built on three main premises. The first premises involves that crime is seen as purposeful behaviour. The crime fits the desired needs of the offenders, this includes make of decisions and choices (these maybe limited to time, ability and availability of that which is needed) (Clarke & Felson, 2008: 6). The Clarke and Felson (2008:6) explained the second premise is that the crime should be explained in the context that it occurs, because the decision making process is regarded as situational. They also explained that each crime will serve a different purpose to the next. The final premise of rational choice is that there should be a distinction between criminality and crime. Criminality refers to the process in which a person choses to become involved in a form of crime, to continue and to stop their involvement (Clarke & Felson, 2008:6). Thus an offender has a form of rational process when getting involved into crime and criminality. Even though in some cases offenders maybe coerced or blackmailed into being part of a specific ‘job’ due to their criminal skill set. 8.2.2. Real-world application Tremblay (2008) builds on the rational choice theory and explains that offenders even have a decision making process when selecting co-offenders; Tremblay (2008) explains that searching for co-offenders are not just a simple matter of finding warm bodies, but involves Hannes Koekemoer| 4576-965-6| CMY4803: Portfolio A Comprehensive discussion on Cash-in-Transit Robbery: A Contemporary crime phenomenon in the South African Context

16 an intricate ‘mating’ process in which offenders select themselves as mutually compatible or incompatible for crime purpose. The decision process will include constraints and transactional cost associated with finding suitable co-offenders (Tremblay, 2008). Bearing in mind both the theoretical premises and the selection process of suitable cooffenders, we can determine that CIT robberies and the process behind them can be fully explained by these two theories. CIT robberies are on average planned and executed with high accuracy to improve reward and minimalise risks and threats. The following assumptions can be made that CIT robbers undergo a strenuous planning and decision making process before the heist is executed. We can deduce that the said leader of the group have selected each co-offender on note of skill, experience and reliability. The extreme accuracy and efficiency that are involved into CIT robberies suggest that a high level of planning.

8.3.

Social Learning Theory

Social learning is the process in which crime and criminality is introduced and adapted through a process of social interactions between ‘mentor’ and ‘student’. The theory is based on two main concepts, imitation and differential association. 8.3.1. Theoretical premises Otu (2003) explains that learning occurs within certain psycho-social factors or circumstances that it mostly occurs in urban centres and cities than in rural areas. Otu (2003) notes that frequency, duration, priority and intensity of the learning sessions influence entire process. Learning behaviour occur within intimate personal groups, the learning behaviour is a top-down approach, from leader down to sub-ordinates. Learning occurs with other persons within the process of communication and whether criminal or not involve all mechanisms that are involved in other. In the study done by Otu (2010) it was found that two major sources of knowledge of current armed robbery in Nigeria are firstly learning through the impersonal agencies such as television, newspapers, and videos, and secondly reading of novels and learning from friends.

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17 8.3.2. Real-world application In the research done by Otu (2010) certain concerns were raised in respects to offenders and social learning, and that if these concerns are not properly addressed it may lead to greater threats in armed robberies. Otu (2010: 453 - 454) outlines the four concerns as: 1. Youths are more likely to be attracted leading to an increase in the incidence of the crime since access to television among contemporary Nigeria youths has upsurge 2. Unemployment accounts for the most singular reason why our respondents got involved in armed robbery 3. Significant measure must be taken to discourage the overbearing influence of the western values and ways of life on the youths in particular 4. Youths should be guarded at all times against bad friends, peer groups, close associates, and relations whose behaviours are questionable, and criminally prone. Due to the fact that CIT robberies almost always occur in groups social leaning can be regarded as a given. The following assumptions can thus be made; the ‘newby’ that is used in the process will learn and imitate the behaviour of the rest of group. During the planning process there will be a high frequency of contact between the ’student’ the leader or ‘mentor’. The interaction process will take the duration of the planning sessions or until the plan has been executed. The time frame will determine the intensity and priority of the learning. The assumption can also be made that there is a continuous learning process between old and new group members even in between ‘jobs’. The older members will for efficiency and effectiveness share their experience and success with the group. Once learning has taken place the ‘newby’ will be fully conversant with the process of planning a CIT heist.

9. Adjudication As with most criminal acts there is a process that is followed by the Justice cluster, this process involves the police, the Courts and Correctional Services. Due to the aggravating circumstance involved with CIT heists and the violent nature of CIT heists sentencing the

Hannes Koekemoer| 4576-965-6| CMY4803: Portfolio A Comprehensive discussion on Cash-in-Transit Robbery: A Contemporary crime phenomenon in the South African Context

18 arrest, successful prosecution and effective incarceration and rehabilitation has become priority for the whole justice cluster.

9.1.

SAPS Involvement

According to the 2013/2014 Annual performance plan the South African Police Service has labelled CIT as a priority crime under reduction of serious crimes (SAPS, 2014a). According to the Annual Performance plan for 2013/2014 the police will focus their efforts on improving five key areas: Administration, Visible policing, Detective services, Crime intelligence and Protective and security services (SAPS, 2014a). By improving these five areas the SAPS aims to increase their prevention capabilities. In relation to CIT crimes, the police are the first line of prevention, defence and arrests. Once a CIT heist has taken place, the SAPS must handle the initial crime scene and forensics. The SAPS must follow up leads and probable intelligence on future CIT heists that are being planned. Effective crime scene and detective work as proposed in the 2014/2015 Annual performance plan (SAPS, 2014a), will ensure effective and efficient arrests, which will lead to sound evidence and prosecution.

9.2.

The Court Process

The main purpose of the court process to ensure that crime fits punishment (incarcerations), to ensure that the justice is passed without bias and fair, to ensure that effective and appropriate sentencing is imposed. The court is also to determine the culpability of each accused and co-accused involved in the crime.. Coetzer (2007) notes the following in regards to sentencing of Cash in Transit Heits, “Section 51 provides that if a person has been convicted of robbery (a) when there are aggravated circumstances or (b) involving the taking of a motor vehicle (hijacking) a court must impose the following minimum sentences: (1) fifteen years in respect of a first offender; (2) twenty years for a second offender; and (3) twenty five years for a third or subsequent offender.” Hannes Koekemoer| 4576-965-6| CMY4803: Portfolio A Comprehensive discussion on Cash-in-Transit Robbery: A Contemporary crime phenomenon in the South African Context

19 The Criminal Procedure Act 51 of 1977 provides for a clear definition of aggravating circumstances for purpose of robbery or attempted robbery insofar that it is (i) the wielding of a fire-arm or any other dangerous weapon; (ii) the infliction of grievous bodily harm; or (iii) a threat to inflict grievous bodily harm.

9.3.

Incarceration, Rehabilitation and Correctional Services

Correctional services are the last to receive an offender, their role in the justice process is to rehabilitate and develop a nature of social responsibility. The Department of Correctional Services (DCS) is no longer just incarcerating offenders but is now geared at rehabilitation (DCS, 2008b). According to the DCS policy on risk profile management and Correctional programmes policy all offenders must be profiled and must undergo correctional programmes (DCS, 2008a; 2008c). The process of profiling enables DCS to develop a Correctional Sentence Plan, an offender’s pathway to change; the CSP enable the Correctional Centres to align their rehabilitation methods specifically towards the offender’s needs/risks and addressing his offending behaviour (DCS, 2008c). According to the Crime typology of DCS, CIT robberies are both labelled as aggressive and economic crimes. The rehabilitation process will be aligned to address the offenders need for acquisition of money and his violent tendencies (DCS, 2008a). CIT offenders will also be primarily classified as maximum risk offenders, due to the aggravating circumstances of and length of sentence imposed on the offence (DCS, 2008c). The main concern of rehabilitation is to prepare the offender for a life without crime, by addressing the underlining reasons s/he committed the offence as well as the risks and needs the offender may have (DCS, 2008a; 2008b).. Rehabilitation is addressed by a holistic and multidisciplinary team, which addresses all aspects of crime, criminality and socially acceptable behaviour (DCS, 2008a).

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10.

Prevention

Due to the ever increasing risk that CIT experience, there more and more technological advances in protecting both the cash and transporters. There are three main areas that need to be reviewed when looking at prevention. The transit of cash, the cash banking system of retailers and banks, and then the pick-up and drop-off points for the cash. These are also the three main points of attacks as addressed by Smith (2010). Business SA (2014) suggests that prevention of CIT robberies must be made from a situational crime prevention approach and must be focus on limiting the physical opportunities for offenders to commit crime and increase the chances of arrests. Erasmus (2012) notes six key operations that need to form part of crime prevention when dealing with CIT robbery. 1. Establishment of formal engagement platforms 2. Sharing of Information between CIT Industry, Law Enforcement Agencies, SA Police Services. 3. Establishment of minimum standards in the industry 4. Substantial investment by CIT companies in vehicles, equipment, infrastructure and technology 5. Increase in standards: vetting, recruitment and training of personnel 6. Crime Prevention Operations

10.1. Transit In relation to the transport of cash, the main areas of concern are who protects the cash and what keeps robbers from attacking the transport. In research done by Business SA (2014) it was found that some of the concerns where the points of attack. The suggestions made by Business SA where that delivery and transit routes need to be variable, to ensure that procedures and technologies are updated regularly to fit to the current crime trends (Business SA, 2014). In South Africa there are many companies that provide safe and protected transport of money. G4s and Fidelity are two of the largest companies that provide such services. Hannes Koekemoer| 4576-965-6| CMY4803: Portfolio A Comprehensive discussion on Cash-in-Transit Robbery: A Contemporary crime phenomenon in the South African Context

21 Both companies offer the basic cash management services, the main services provided are (G4s, 2010; Fidelity, 2010): 1. Collection and delivery of cash 2. Risk reduction and improved staff safety 3. Training and development of staff. 4. Cutting edge technology According to G4s one of the market leaders in CIT the transporting of cash needs to be performed within a secure framework. Every element of the process needs to be tried and tested and as circumstances change so should the use of technology and developments change (G4s, 2010). Fidelity (2010) explains that their CIT transport vehicle utilize the specially adapted interlocking vault systems. They also have specialised bags to carry cash across pavements. Both companies employ measure to make the prospects of gain less and increase the difficulty of the heist. The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in South Africa has developed a CIT vehicle that is fitted with a Polyurethane Dispensing Unit (PUDU), the system is designed to dispense a quick-drying and solidifying foam into the vault are of the CIT vehicle. The foam makes getting the money out in time impossible (CSIR, 2010). SBV services are one of the first companies to employ the PUDU system, and it has shown great effectiveness against cash in transit robberies (CSIR, 2014).

10.2. Cash Banking System The greatest concern with dealing with cash, is the banking and safe storage of cash. As long as cash is on route it has the probability to be stolen. Harris (2014) reports on a new approach in cash delivery system and cash management system, the system makes use of pneumatic tubes system that is installed into each shop in a shopping centre and the money is deposited in capsules that then send to a cash-hub centre. The system makes use of the latest biometric tracking and various self-protection devices (Harris, 2014). The system is a self-contained system and is based on the principle to recycle the cash with in the shopping centre via secure cash distribution centre. This limits the need and use of guards and vehicle transporting cash (Harris, 2014). Harris noted that the project is supported by a consortium Hannes Koekemoer| 4576-965-6| CMY4803: Portfolio A Comprehensive discussion on Cash-in-Transit Robbery: A Contemporary crime phenomenon in the South African Context

22 of industry partners, non-profit organisations and South African companies; these include Business against Crime South Africa (BACSA), Standard Bank, the Consumer Goods Council of South Africa (CGCSA), Liberty Properties and SBV Services. According to Phillips (2014) all retailers should invest in stable psychological bank accounts to limit areas of vulnerability and opportunity to access cash; this will also limit staff perception and fears of being involved in a cash in transit robbery. Phillips (2014) explains the fundamental principles in psychological bank accounts (effective cash management): 1) A strong and capable vault (Category 4 at least). The vault should be able to resist any attempt to cut it open or removing it entirely from its mountings in less than a couple of minutes. 2) Real time GPRS communication required to transmit all of the financial and technical activities at the cash vault to the central server. 3) Same day settlement. 4) An unequivocal contractual commitment by the supplier that the risk of the cash is transferred immediately upon it being deposited into the cash vault. 5) Ensure that Point of Sales should not exceed too high values above the float, and that regular deposits should be made to the cash vault. 6) The elimination of any form of third-party intervention such as a back office supervisor. 7) The use of a professional CIT Company, to do daily collections of cash and drop offs at the bank.

10.3. Pick-up/Drop-off of Cash In research done by Business SA (2014) in Australia about CIT, it was found that most CIT heists are done by professionals and across pavement (the delivery points). The CSIR’s PUDU system is also being installed into Cross pavement Carriers (CSIR, 2010) which limits the desirability of the target. G4s uses a web-based solution, e-Viper that tracks and traces the security bags that are being transported in cross pavement carriers (CPCs). Each bag is fitted with its own unique barcode; the CPCs are fitted with ink and dye technology that stains the banknotes if any of the CPCs are stolen or forced open (G4s, 2010). Hannes Koekemoer| 4576-965-6| CMY4803: Portfolio A Comprehensive discussion on Cash-in-Transit Robbery: A Contemporary crime phenomenon in the South African Context

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11. Conclusion Cash-in-transit crimes are far less enjoyable or desirable as depicted by popular films, as discussed it is a cut-throat crime that deals explicitly in violence. This paper comprehensively discussed the crime phenomenon of CIT heists. CIT heists are not just an opportunistic crime, committed by amateur criminals with limit experience. The crime takes extensive planning, a large ‘work’ force of capable and suitable offenders, the criminals will use violence and force with ease, and any other means of securing their end goal. The discussion led to the current status of the crime in South Africa as well as global trends. The discussions showed that although there has been a considerable decline in CIT heists it is still revered as a priority crime by SAPS, SABRIC, and private security companies. The characteristics of the perpetrator was discussed and it was a general acceptance that the offenders always acted in groups, used assault rifles as weapon of choice, most of CIT heists are involved with organised crime, the crimes are committed by professional and experienced criminals who are not shy to use deadly force. The victims characteristics were also discussed the major trends found that targets are selection included, the time and place of transit, the difficulty of entering the vehicle and the use preventive technologies. Whether the desired target belonged to a certain company of bank did not greatly affect the choice of target. The Paper discussed the causes of the crime and the theoretical explanation of CIT heists. The main causes outlined were based on socioeconomics and groupthink (organised crime involvement) Three main theoretical explanations where address namely Robbery as parasitic consumption, offenders subsists on what the consumption of the working class, living of the expense of others. The rational choice theory was explained, and concluded that CIT heists are planned and that offenders willingly and with rational decision-making choose to be part of the crime. It also explained the selection of suitable co-offenders by evaluating offenders on skill, experience, demographics, social risks and reliability. The third theoretical approached explained was the social learning theory in which a superior will teach an inferior or subordinate. The learning process takes places through the social interaction between superiors and inferiors. Hannes Koekemoer| 4576-965-6| CMY4803: Portfolio A Comprehensive discussion on Cash-in-Transit Robbery: A Contemporary crime phenomenon in the South African Context

24 Finally the paper discussed the adjudication of the crime and the prevention the CIT heists. The adjudication was divided in the three legs of the criminal justice process, police, courts and correctional services. The three legs are in a continuous cause-and-effect process, the effectiveness and efficiency of one will determine the progress of the next. All three sections are geared in preventing future criminal acts. In final the prevention strategies were discussed; prevention was divided into the cycle of cash management the transit, cash banking system and the pick-up/drop-off points. These are also regarded as the three vulnerable points in the process. The discussions involved strategies that are employed by South African companies as wells as global trends and technological advances in prevention.

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28 Smith , L. & Louis, E., 2010. Cash in transit armed robbery in Australia. Trends & Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, July(397), pp. 1 - 6. Smith, N., 2010. Cash-in-transit and other violent robbery risk in Brazil, São Paulo: Febraban. The Gale Group, 2011. TheFreeDictionary: Aggravating Circumstances. [Online] Available at: http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/aggravating+circumstances [Accessed 8 Janaury 2015]. Tremblay, P., 2008. Searching for suitable Co-Offenders. In: R. V. Clarke & M. Felson, eds. Routine Activity and Rational Choice. New Jersey: Transaction, pp. 17 - 36. USLegal, 2010. USLegal: Economic Crime. [Online] Available at: http://definitions.uslegal.com/e/economic-crime%20/ [Accessed 8 January 2015].

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