Pedagogical material: Aztec Empire.

Pedagogical material: Aztec Empire
María Inés Alvarez

To develop the present essay, it is necessary to explain that the concept of Aztec Empire is rather an academic concept (Smith 2000, 581) that has been used for pedagogical purposes of education. In the school stage and even in social sciences faculties, the Aztec empire is taught along with the Inca and Mayan. Additionally, this concept was a distinct Spanish construction. On the coast of Tabasco, Spaniards frequently heard the words Mexica and Culhua, in relation to an important town to the North, beyond the mountains (Townsend 2009. 222). The town received the news of these visitors through messengers.

The first impression Spaniards had of the Aztec priests was a pretty dark one, as Bernal Díaz del Castillo (Townsend 2009, 203) narrates. However, these priests represented an important and unifying religious tradition for all the Aztec culture, they led various aspects of social life, such as intellectual and artistic manifestations. However, some rituals were also carried out by the tlatoani and the cihuacoatl. The tlatoani invested some sort of a divine power, one that was different from the Pharaoh in Egypt, and their duty was to keep the renewal of nature as an integral aspect in society. The tlatoani, as chief warriors, embodied the hero Huitzilopochtli, whose cult was associated with the worship of the Sun, and was also present in many crucial festivals of the ceremonial cycle.

Different elements are characteristic of the city-states of central Mexico: they had a gradual development, their integration retained even with the expansion of the Empire, and finally they were a manifestation of a development process that took place throughout the region of Mesoamerica, in the Postclassic period. (Smith 2000)

Smith (Smith 2000, 581) indicates that the Aztec term is more of a modern academic construction, and was established in parallel to the misclassification developed until 1931, according to which the Aztec society was an egalitarian tribal society similar to some in North America.

Already in 1931, Manuel Moreno (Moreno-1931) (Smith 2000: 582) demonstrated the existence of State institutions in Aztec society, which later and according to the published evidence, allowed to establish that the Aztec model functioned at the level of institutions (Bernal 1962) (Vaillant 1941) (Smith 2000: 583)

Regarding the concept of "Empire", we must understand it as a centralized Government under the authoritarianism of one man, although these aspects can be also found in the reign of Moctezuma II. In 1519, Motecuhzoma (or Moctezuma) was at the head of a complex social and political hierarchy, in which the Aztec people delivered loyalty and homage to the nobles. This translates into imperial authorities supporting the tributary cities whenever they paid their corresponding taxes. The previous leads us to conclude that the commoners were subject to heavy taxation imposed by the nobility, especially considering that the commoners sold in markets various craft products made in their homes, as in the case of textiles. As a result, the imposed burden exceeded their income. Archaeological studies in provincial settlements suggest that the taxation was indeed excessive.

As a hypothesis, the concept of Empire commonly delivered by academics or by first observers of social reality in these communities, , however as we will point out in the next few paragraphs, there is no evidence that the Spaniards have pointed the Mexica people as the "Aztec Empire".

We could discuss the existence of a centralized State not around a man but rather around religion, mythology and beliefs, even over social and gender differences. With regard to the latter, from the moment of birth it was already determined which functions each person must comply, for instance, a boy-child's umbilical cord was buried in a battlefield, while a girl's was buried next to the fireplace, (Townsend 2009. 162). It can be considered that this was due to the fact that girls, when reaching the appropriate age, should get married and fulfill her duties in the house and towards her family.

Nevertheless, women not only fulfilled domestic functions, it is also mentioned that their duties included medicine, crafts manufacture, and sales in markets (Brumfiel, 1980).After childbirth, they visited the soothsayers, who sought to improve conditions or fight hidden forces that could affect the fate of the child in the future (Townsend 2009. 163).

Therefore, although for the Aztec world there existed a premeditated fate, possibly designed by the gods, the underworld could modify those forces, which is why their worship to the deities was indeed high, but they refused to accept their fate as given. In fact, since they were young they struggled to change the adverse circumstances they were born with, whereas the tonalamatl was not considered a default destination book but a guide (Townsend 2009. 163).

Considering differences within the Aztec society, and even more the little chance of upward mobility, a hierarchical and centralized society arises, in every aspect, especially in education. The children were educated with values governed by discipline, respect, education, obedience and reverence to deities (Townsend 2009. 162). The author points out that it shows similarities with the education systems that can be currently observed in Japan or China. (Townsend 2009. 162).

Although the Aztec society offered opportunities for upward mobility, children finally inherited the status of their parents, this could be due to the fact that education depended on the social status, which implies a preservation of their situation in the social pyramid and that in very few cases let promotions. Three or four year-old children began to perform domestic tasks, which over time, at the age of eight and ten years were transformed into the skilled trades of their fathers elementary instruction, later entrants in schools, where they emphasized in the values of obedience, humility and self-discipline. There were two types of schools, telpochcalli for commoners and calmecac for the nobility.In very specific occasions smart child of lower classes could join them, finding here the possibility of upward mobility.

The Calmecac school graduates were appointed judges or administratives (Townsend 2009. 162), whose knowledge was different from the Telpochcalli school graduates. Still, basic instruction and education was very important in the Aztec society, so it would be difficult to disregard the relevance of music, singing and dance both in the Telpochcalli and the Calmecac schools. However, in the past they emphasized in the songs and dances of ritual character (Townsend 2009. 168). In fact, dance was a centerpiece in the festivities that occurred every twenty days and inn other minor holidays.

As the Spanish Friar Gerónimo de Mendieta indicated in the ecclesiastical history Indiana (Mendieta 1596) (Townsend 2009. 167), dance was essentially public, performed mainly in squares, but also in private circles, and in various events, such as in the case of war victory or a new leader, all with music specially composed for the occasion. In synthesis, dance music accompanied the Aztec society throughout their existence, and established an element of equality. Art in general, is not new as an element of social equality , as the typical dances of each country allow eliminating social differences, thus, art and religion are elements that bring together society and establish a criterion of parity.

In the provinces, the situation was very different. The elite of Cuexcomate resembled the nobility documented by other authors in Morelos (Carrasco 1976) (Smith and Smith 1994. 354), which controlled most if not all the land, besides the plebeians were obliged to pay taxes. It had been noted that Cuexcomate and Capilco residents were prosperous people despite tax payment (Smith 1997, 82) and the population explosion. The demographic explosion of the Aztecs and their use of most the cultivating land imposed pressure in the vicinity of the center of Mexico, emerging villages, and cities. .

Centralization can also be found in the Aztec world in the influence of Tenochtitlan, which allowed to gain control over tax communities, but also became one of the factors that allowed the Spaniards to subjugate the Aztec people. In fact, Tlaxcala might have supported the cause against the Spanish invaders, (Townsend 2009. 236), but instead the deep aggressions and subjugation to Tenochtitlan, ended in giving refuge to Cortés and his men.

Many were the factors that contributed to the fall of Tenochtitlan. One of them was the arrival of the Spaniards in a special moment in the calendar, the tactical superiority and Cortés and his men's strategy, the centralization of power in the hands of the Tlatoani, but also the Aztec way of waging war linked to religion and the illnesses that diminished the power of the people of Tenochtitlan (Townsend 2009. 238).

It would be correct to note then, that the Empire as such, gives its concept to expansion and the subordination of other people, which can be seen in Tenochtitlan and led to the facts already reported in the preceding paragraphs.

Regarding the concept of "Aztec Empire or "Empire of Mexicans", Barlow says that the Spaniards do not talk about these concepts in their stories (Barlow 1945." 345), neither does Bernardino de Sahagún nor Cortés. On the other hand, the Aztec concept has a meaning and a place in the history of Mexico, in relation to Huitzilopochtli and to call himself Mexica and not Aztec (Torquemada) (Barlow 1945. 346), with which the Aztec concept is left obsolete.

Furthermore, it has been proposed that the Culhua people and the Mexica people are the same person, whereupon the Aztec term is even more obsolete. Although to be precise, the identification of the Aztecs with the Culhua comes from the Spanish conquerors. Summing up, the term Aztec Empire should be discarded, and return to the original term: "the Culhua Mexica Empire" (Barlow 1945. 349).

With this, we should leave the debate regarding the concept of azteca as closed, since this would have become obsolete, giving way to the Mexica term.

Regarding the concept, in his work Townsend (Townsend 2009) mentions the Empire as a valid concept, since the heritage of a society for the later times (especially cultural heritage) would be equally or even more important than the centralization lived by the society in times of greater social development.

It is necessary to mention that any culture and human group has its origins in a past history, and constitutes a heir of previous traditions, the Aztec civilization is not the exception. Although we can establish specific differences between the Aztec and the Mayan culture, (for example the geographical place, its language and the epoch and development), similarities can be found, such as the creation of a complex mythology and world view, the human sacrifices and the calendars that guided rituals and practices within the community. On the one hand, they would be heirs of the Toltec culture, which existed after the fall of Teotihuacan and before the appearance of the cities in the Valley of Mexico. This town was both heir of the Teotihuacan culture and synonymous of a noble and admirable spirit, however the agricultural issues had not the same importance in Teotihuacan as they did in Mayan art.

The Toltec founded Toltec Tula, where a connection to the Mayan civilization can be established: Chichén Itzá registers murals representing Toltec warriors arriving by sea. Recently in our history, archaeologists in the decades of '30 and '40 identified the characteristics of the Toltecs, especifically some theories about the destruction of Tula, which could have been a prolonged drought that may have precipitated the disintegration, infighting or a fire. There are archaeological vestiges that support this theory; including ruins and skeletal remains. There is no doubt that the Aztec culture took many aspects of the Toltec culture.

In this manner, Townsend points out that the imperial effort is the result of a cultural and social transformation process started with the arrival of the migratory tribes to the Valley of Mexico. Nevertheless, according to the author (Townsend 2009. 12), the acceleration of the process to become an empire, was not only due to the policies and wars directed by ambitious leaders and to the enormous quantity of taxes sent by the subordinated people, but the Aztec achievement must be understood in terms of a collective work, as the communities saw the opportunity to develop commerce, diverse agricultural methods, along with the necessary technical skills. 

The Aztec or mexica society inherited and absorbed a major knowledge of mythology, history, art, architecture, religion and its rituals. This knowledge spread through society in order to achieve a greater level of social cohesion both to instruct the population and to maintain military stability. Therefore, society set its bases on religiousness a season-based calendar and the productivity of the ground. 

The productivity of the ground was an element of absolute importance in the Aztec society due to the feeding needs, but also because of the possibility to conquer new areas and the demonstration of their hegemony aside other communities. The Mexicas lived an extensive migration process, being expelled from Chapultepec, and then finding shelter in Culhuacan, in inhospitable Tizaapan. There,they applied their experience in hunting and gathering, while this place would be precisely the antechamber of their arrival to the Texcoco Lake, where they would develop the agriculture and horticulture.

Bernardino de Sahagún in the "General History of the Things of New Spain" distinguishes between Farmers and Horticulturalists, the first were described as workers filled with general knowledge, while the second were specialized workers, with expertise in planting, plantation and cycles. (Sahagún, "General History of the Things of New Spain" original text: "Historia General de las cosas de Nueva España 1540-1585)) (Townsend 2009, 171). The development of Chinampas during the reign of Itzcoatl and Motecuhzoma I was accompanied by the construction of terraces. Meanwhile, plantations were fertilized with manure decomposition, which continues remaining in Latin America as a fertilizer to various plantations.

Over time, and because of a major use of the natural resources in order to avoid possible flooding in the city, complex improvements in the hydraulic works and cultivation were necessary. In addition, their advanced knowledge regarding cycles and climatic factors that may affect agriculture was necessary. In relation to this, aqueducts systems were investigated for the first time at the end of 1940's and beginning of 1950's working with the hypothesis that the aqueducts systems were a project impelled from the central administration. Nevertheless, it is also possible that the local communities without the need to be impelled encouraged and supported the construction of an aqueduct system because they understood the benefits that these systems could bring. (Townsend 2009, 174)

The big irrigation projects were constructed in the northwest valley of Mexico, in Valley of Morelos. The archaeological explorations have found agricultural terraces testing evidence (Townsend 2009, 175).

There is no doubt that Tenochtitlan perceived itself differently as perceived by the neighboring taxing communities, allied or enemy, to whom the image of feared, was widespread. Neither is there doubt, that the centralization of the State can be argued to support the term Empire.

It is essential to mention the appearance of the chinampas, which consisted on rafts of earth that allowed cultivation and expansion into new territory. In the 15th century, under the reign of Tlatoani Moctezuma I (Townsend 2009, 172), the chinampas and hydraulic systems acquired importance, including the construction of chinampas. Research conducted from the air ensures that the orientation of chinampas responded to uniformity, thus, one can conclude that it was part of a planned construction program.

Townsend also points out, that the process experienced by the Aztec society is not a mere imitation of the Meso-American Antiquity, but is rather a cultural synthesis in which the Mexica communities adapted and made adjustments to what has already been done by ancient civilizations.

There was a self-perception of the Aztecs as inheritors of an ancient society's tradition, which helped the ruling class to unite the society under a spirit and social organization. A clearly distinguishable social organization is one of the characteristic elements of the Mayas, they never achieved a unique political organization, in contrast, they were constituted in city-states as independent Governments, without a centralization of their policies, but they did share a culture around the Yucatan Peninsula or elsewhere. What can be surely designated as a common element between both Empires is that they were a civilization and shared a culture.

As for the Inca Empire, its social organization was developed around a common ancestor who unified a group of people, very similar to the Aztec social organization, where the calpulli existed as the basis of the social structure.

In this case we are indeed facing an empire, as long as there is a cultural legacy, a religiousness and clearly distinguishable social aspects , distinguishable not only at the same time they were developed but also by later generations. Centralization in a city or in a political position, as well as the conquest of territories, are factors to be considered as elements that allow to identify the extent of an empire, even a whole country now identifies its origins to the Aztec Empire, Mexico with 112 million inhabitants is heir to the Aztec tradition; actually, its name comes from the Nahuatl: Mexiko.

Consequently, there is no doubt about the inheritance and legacy left by the Mexica or Aztec Empire, allowing it to be taught worldwide and to be such an important topic in academic discussions. According to this, the Mapuche people, for instance, would not be an empire. The extension of their territory prior to the Spanish conquest in Chile covered from the Bío Bío to the South, implying a great extension and its cultural heritage is of great importance for the Chilean people, but they are unrecognized worldwide. Then, it can be concluded that it is the cultural heritage and the knowledge that the world has of a society what makes it become an Empire, not the extension of its territory.