Multiethnic/Multiracial Families

Share Embed


Descripción

Multiracial/Multiethnic Families Multiracial/multiethnic Asian American families, those with parents of two or more distinct ethnic or racial backgrounds and their mixed offspring, have become increasingly commonplace since the end of WWII. These families, nuclear and non-nuclear, blend diverse cultural practices and traditions, encouraging the synthesis of unique, pluralistic identities. Mixed families have formed for many reasons. Though early Asian American immigrant groups were encouraged to mix because of gender imbalances, interracial intimacies were legally, socially and often violently discouraged. In later cases with the phenomena of “war brides” and Amerasians, mixed families were tested by the duress of war and compounding discrimination. More recently, globalization, new transnational migrations, diminishing social barriers and the increased socio-economic mobility of certain Asian American groups have attributed to the rise in mixed births. While Asian Americans are one of the nation’s fastest growing populations, the multiracial/multiethnic demographic (2.6 million individuals) has grown exponentially over the last few decades (58.8% growth rate, 15% of the total Asian American population according to the 2010 Census). Moreover, mixed Asian Americans represent nearly 30% of the blossoming national “two or more races” population. These findings bring up several important points for consideration. Are these demographic shifts the result of individual desires or structural changes? Will the increase of multiethnics encourage the assertion of ethnic distinctiveness? Does intermarriage indicate the “successful assimilation” of Asian Americans into the mainstream? Will this trend result in the demise of ethnic solidarity or communal integrity? Or does it mean that Asian Americans have to reconsider the social contours of group formations and the limitations of “ethnicity” as a marker of inclusion? What can we learn from these families about the improvements and continued challenges of contemporary race relations? Multiracial/multiethnic families are a significant dimension of changing racial landscapes in the United States and other nations. Rather than marginal entities, they are actively challenging prevailing social dynamics within and beyond Asian American communities, forcing us to reexamine the boundaries between populations and the fundamental ideals which define them. Historical Trajectories Various historical movements have encouraged Asian/Americans to look beyond their co-ethnics for relationships, intimacy, and romance. Filipinos and non-whites were the earliest multiethnic Asian American families in the United States. By the 18th century, male Filipino laborers had established a small community in Louisiana where they married with local Cajun and Native American women. Chinese immigrants came to the West as sojourners, residing in segregated, male dominated communities. While anti-miscegenation laws prevented Chinese from legally marrying Caucasian women, they did not necessarily prevent intimacies or marriages to non-Caucasians. At the same time, in-group social barriers often discouraged the crossing of racial lines. Japanese Issei had extremely low out-marriage rates, just 3.1% of men and 2.3% of women before WWII. This is largely attributed to both the stringency of these boundaries and Issei’s ability to bring “picture brides” over from Japan after the Gentlemen’s Agreement of 1907. Some early Asian American communities formed as a direct result of interracial mixing. Punjabi migrants who came to California’s Imperial Valley in the early 1900s married Mexican women since both

groups were similarly oppressed. Furthermore, their unions did not pose a “threat” to Caucasians. Around this same time, Mexicans and Filipinos formed unions in San Diego. Shared experiences of racialization, segregation, and various cultural commonalities facilitated the creation of cross-communal networks and relationships. This mixing resulted in a unique, hybridized “Mexipino” identity. The years following WWII marked the beginning of major influxes of interracial Japanese American families. Many American GIs brought war brides home after the occupation of Japan and settled throughout the United States. Though there was initial resistance, the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 (also known as the McCarran-Walter Act) legally sanctioned these marriages. Some transnational families successfully bridged cultural gaps while others faltered in the face of hardship, cultural differences, gender subordination or simply a lack of compatibility. Most were forced to deal with stigma from both mainstream and their constituent ethnic groups. Unfortunately, many families were split apart because of fraught immigration policies, discrimination and the irresponsibility of individuals. Single mothers and extended kin often endured great hardship while raising these children. Similar patterns were repeated during the Korean and Vietnam War. At the same time, some Nisei and Sansei Japanese Americans began to venture away from the ethnic community, initiating a trend which radically shifted communal demographics. Chinese, Filipino and Korean Americans followed similar patterns in subsequent decades. Loving vs. Virginia (1967) overturned the remaining state bans on interracial marriages, allowing individuals from any ethnic or racial group to legally marry whoever they desired regardless of ancestral heritage. By the new millennium, it was clear that social boundaries which had previously divided ethnic and racial groups were beginning to blur. Race Politics and Family In the United States, families have been targets for the legal and social policing of racial color lines. This is particularly apparent in the case of Asian Americans. “Yellow peril” rhetoric focused on the purported danger “sexually deviant and immoral” Asian men posed to the chastity of white women. Beliefs about protecting the integrity of the “American family” corresponded with fears of impending economic encroachment. Furthermore, the permanent settlement of Asian families threatened prevailing racial boundaries. Anti-immigration laws such as the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, the National Origins Act and the Asian Exclusion Act of 1924 ostensibly stopped the flow of bodies and thus prevented further communal establishment through mainstream avenues. Sanctions against intermarriage were also a significant part of this campaign. Anti-miscegenation laws and the social mechanisms which maintained the color lines dividing blacks and whites were readily extended to Asians. Legislation like the Cable Act of 1922 specifically targeted intermarried Asian couples and stripped American women who married “aliens ineligible for citizenship or naturalization” of their US citizenship. Preventing the formation of multiracial and multiethnic Asian American families thus became a focal point of race relations during this period of migration and settlement. Conversely, mixed Asian American families provided a vital catalyst in the fight for marriage equality and have since radically altered the composition of the “American family.”

Family “Trends” There are a number of speculations as to why Asian Americans choose to intermarry and each must be critically scrutinized. It is important to keep in mind that we cannot generalize the experiences of all families. Factors such as locality, class, race, and individual idiosyncrasies make every experience unique and complex. The presence of multiethnic families is potentially indicative of broader social trends. Whether this is seen positively or negatively is a matter of perspective. Some view multiethnic families as a sign of widespread assimilation. In order to achieve higher socio-economic mobility, some Asian Americans may choose to integrate. Others who have only symbolic attachments to their ethnic identity may simply see no appeal in endogamy and seek partners with different cultural backgrounds. Gendered stereotypes of Asian male femininity and female exoticism often circumscribe interracial relationships. Prejudice towards women who outmarry tends to be particularly malicious. Foreshadowing future developments, some have claimed that mixing signals the “end” to the Japanese American ethnic community. Since the 1980s, outmarriage rates for both domestic and foreign born Japanese/Americans have far surpassed other ethnic groups. In 2010, 41% of all Japanese Americans who participated in the Census reported being racially and/or ethnically mixed. In the face of such change, some have worried about preserving traditions of the past, community spaces, and “racial purity.” On the other hand, many have embraced this change and welcomed interracial families. Families and Identity Many scholars note the importance of family in the process of identity formation. The positive encouragement of a parent and a nurturing environment can make the difference between healthy or unhealthy self images. Conversely, parental pressure or apathy can be detrimental to self-esteem. Thus, the family unit has a considerable influence. Certainly, parents rear their child with particular cultural values. The presence or lack of language, tradition or “ethnic commodities” in the home may influence the way multiethnic children feel about their embodied diversity. Cultural knowledge and even food become important sources of empowerment in identity development. Private spaces are also essential for addressing the complexities of “otherness.” Families often serve as an aegis against discrimination. Whether the child chooses to adopt a singular or pluralistic identity, the support of parents is vital. Many are able to appreciate and take pride in belonging to a particular ethnic group due to conscious encouragement. At the same time, families can also nurture exploration and the development of a pluralistic identity. Creating an amicable balance between these myriad influences is vital for understanding the positive dimensions of hybridity. In fact, the home may be one of the only spaces where a child can make meaning of this diversity during formative years. However, families may also cause injury. Rather than reconcile with difference, kin sometimes impose certain ethnic identities while eschewing others. In extreme cases, they may suppress hybridity altogether. While such actions may be deliberate, some unknowing promote feelings of “incompleteness.”

Children may internalize discrimination in a number of ways. Abandonment, isolation and family instability can be wrongly associated with “otherness.” Loyalty to a parent or favoritism can also cause anxiety. One parent may feel strongly about giving their child a “proper” upbringing and encourage them to assume a singular ethnic identity. If the family fractures, this can become onerous. Being given an “ethnic” last name, which heavily favors the father’s lineage, or “ethnic” first name, which can come from either parent, may also present problems in public interactions. Often, multiracials feel pressured to legitimate their cultural identity and connection to the ethnic community. Parents may exacerbate this dynamic. The “need” to prove one’s “authenticity” to kin can become an endless source of discouragement. A lack of parental guidance can also intensify feelings of marginality. Despite challenges, some families may have many benefits. For one, it is often assumed that multiethnic families are inherently more “progressive” and cosmopolitan as the contrasting backgrounds of the parents merge diverse perspectives and values. Transnational families who can travel or settle in multiple countries can give mixed children a rich cultural upbringing. Furthermore, “cultural capital” can be shared, learned, and passed onto offspring, allowing them to participate in a wider range of experiences and interactions. These families can cultivate distinct ethnic backgrounds or blend many. By doing so, these families posit more flexible and fluid definitions of “family” and “identity” as they carry on the legacies of the past while appreciating change in the present. Whether families emphasize one or many identities, it is evident that kinship plays an essential role in identity formation processes. As such, it is important to understand both the internal dynamics and external social conventions that affect mixed families. Families can enable all members to accept and embrace their diverse parts and in so doing become more whole. As individual family members find “wholeness,” they also influence others to be more inclusive and accepting. Contemporary and Future Implications Though Loving vs. Virginia ended legal discrimination, multiethnic/multiracial families still face many challenges. Racist backlash over the recent 2013 Cheerios commercial depicting a multiracial Black-White family shows that bigotry and social opposition persists. Furthermore, not all American families are constitutionally protected, namely same-sex couples. Though seemingly divergent, the struggle for multiethnic and same-sex marriage equality shares many similarities; certain families are denied their full rights as citizens and the benefits of legal marriage on the grounds of “morality.” Pathologizing rhetoric depicting same-sex couples as “unnatural unions” is not dissimilar from past prejudice toward those who married across racial lines. Moreover, this bigotry denies individuals’ right to determine their gender identity freely. The history of multiethnic/multiracial Asian American families can be used as a useful comparative model in the fight for marriage equality and the continuous struggle against racial injustice. James Ong, M.A. University of California, Los Angeles, Asian American Studies

Stephen Murphy-Shigematsu, Ed.D. Stanford University, Consulting Professor Asian American Studies

Further Readings: Murphy-Shigematsu, Stephen, When Half is Whole. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2012. Root, Maria P. Racially Mixed People in America. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, 1992. Spickard, Paul R. Mixed Blood: Intermarriage and Ethnic Identity in Twentieth-Century America. Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1989. Williams-Leon, Teresa, and Cynthia L. Nakashima, Eds. The Sum of our Parts: Mixed Heritage Asian Americans. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001.

Lihat lebih banyak...

Comentarios

Copyright © 2017 DATOSPDF Inc.