fig.1 High Complexity, High Chroma: heatmap
This book, and accompanying exhibition, are part of an ongoing study conducted with human test subjects to investigate theories of task performance and emotion induction through viewing particular composition sets. It is an aesthetic survey using eye-tracking technology and Josef Albers’ theories on color interaction (1963) combined with contemporary psychological research. A gallery of abstract color compositions was created for viewers to experience in a controlled setting at eye-tracking stations, several of which can be seen as figures within this document. (figs. 5-10) How long does a person fixate on a particular area within a composition? Which compositions promote arousal and visual searching, and which promote relaxation and visual stillness? Can exposure to a particular set of color compositions enhance critical thinking skills or problem solving? These are some of the questions to be answered. Above (fig. 1) is an example of a heatmap displaying viewer fixation point patterns with the eye-tracking hardware. The intent of the eye-tracking study is twofold. First off, through visualization of the gaze it can be seen whether elements such as composition and color impact arousal, as determined by gaze patterns and the way in which a subject scans or fixates on the image. Subjects who partake in the eye-tracking study view compositions designed to prime various states of arousal and mood, and they also partake in several cognitive tasks to include creativity tasks (such as tests of functional fixedness) and error monitoring tasks. Results of the performance studies are forthcoming, and this text outlines the process of hypothesis building and the manner in which images were piloted.
fig.2 Color Valence & Arousal (Crowley, 1993)
Color is known to have both physiological and psychological effects. These effects are multidimensional, differential and somewhat complicated, but many researchers continue to work out the details. While colors activate us physiologically at different levels (high or low arousal) they also can be considered in terms of the way they impact us emotionally (positive or negative valence). This two-dimensional view on the impact of color is visualized above in figure 2, and is taken from Crowley’s (1993) proposed valence-arousal model. These two same dimensions of arousal and valence have also been utilized in theories of emotion and behavior. As seen in figure 3, Crowley’s model (1993) can be mapped onto the valence-arousal quadrants from mood state research (Russell, 1980), which is a novel combination of theories derived for the purpose of this manuscript. As each mood quadrant is known to support certain types of behavioral consequences, by combining these two theories I propose that color composition may not only impact mood states, but also task performance. For example, negative valence low arousal mood states are associated with increased error detection (Chiu & Deldin, 2007) and someone in this state may notice mistakes or view things with a more critical eye. Positive valence has been associated with enhanced creativity, problem-solving and working memory capacity (Isen, Johnson, Mertz & Robinson, 1985), with high and low arousal each lending to different specific type of problem solving (Sternberg, 1998). Exposure to a color composition may therefore prime the viewer through its various elements into one or another particular state and enhance associated abilities or behaviors.
fig.3 Combining the theories of Crowley (1993) and Russell (1980)
Element 1. Color Consider color as psychological metaphor, as well as an issue of evolutionary psychology. Reds: -Arousal and excitement (Stone & English, 1998) -Anger & Aggression (Lakoff & Johnson, 1999) -Threat & Anxiety (Feltman & Elliot, 2011) -Incites approach behaviors (Elliot & Niesta, 2008) Blues: -Calm (Stone & English, 1998) -Relaxation (Jacobs & Hustymyer, 1974) Greens: -Facilitate creative performance (Lichtenfeld, Elliot, Maier & Pekrun, 2012) Value: -Low value colors evoke dread -High value colors evoke happiness (James & Domingo, 1953) Chroma: -Low chroma colors as relaxing -High chroma colors as arousing (Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994)
Element 2. Processing Fluency Fluency is the ease with which an image can be visually processed, based on any of the following: image complexity, image symmetry and sharpness of image focus. (Jacoby & Dallas, 1981)
IMPACT OF FLUENCY Promotes comfort and relaxation (Reber, Winkielman & Schwarz, 1998) fig.4 Visual Fluency
IMPACT OF DISFLUENCY Promotes attention and excitement, motivation to search/scan (Berlyne, 1970)
fig.5 High Simplicity, Low Chroma
Color choice and composition fluency are two major elements to be considered in terms of arousal and valence. While colors at the ends of the visible spectrum tend to be the most physiologically arousing, they also incite approach behaviors and call people to action. Many studies suggest that reds produce negative valence due to associations with threat (Lakoff & Johnson, 1999; Feltman & Elliot & Niesta, 2008), however there is also a body of work that reflects on the malleable nature of association building for red and all colors through cultural learning, such that in certain contexts reds can be positively valenced. While blues are often thought to be the most calming, there has been research to suggest that greens are not only incredibly physiologically calming, but also that exposure to the color green may facilitate creative performance (Lichtenfeld, Elliot, Maier & Pekrun, 2012). Chroma and value are also relevant to the elicitation of mood states and have been known to link with both physiological arousal and emotional valence as well. Visual fluency is more of a compositional consideration, and fluency can be achieved in a variety of ways, to include symmetry, simplicity, or even sharpness of focus. A visually fluent image is easy to look at and visually process, which would hypothetically reduce the intensity of visual scan. A disfluent image is one that is chaotic through design and evokes an active visual scan. While disfluency promotes attention and high arousal, it also tends to be negatively valenced while fluency tends to be positively valenced (Reber, Winkielman & Schwarz, 1998). There are however scenarios in which visual disfluency is positively valenced, for example when people are in a highly goal-oriented mindset, visual difficulty is associated with the feeling of exerting high effort and can be enjoyable (Labroo & Kim, 2009).
fig.6 High Simplicity, Low Chroma: heatmap
As an example, figure 5 shows a composition that is fairly simple (high fluency) with low chroma. It can be seen through heatmapping in figure 6 that a central and fairly stable gaze is kept by subjects viewing the composition. Alternatively, figure 1 is complex (low fluency) with high chroma. Heatmapping reflects the comparatively chaotic and disrupted gaze in figure 1 caused by composition and color. What you see here are actually aggregates or averages across many subjects. As will be discussed in the next sections, the impact of composition can also be considered in terms of spatial orientation and gaze, as well as the elements of the line and shape.
fig.7 Downward Vertical Orientation: scanpath
Element 3. Spatial Orientation VERTICAL ORIENTATION Up -Good, positivity, happiness (Meier, Sellbom & Wygant, 2007) -High power (Schubert, 2005) Down -Bad, negative, sad or angry (Kovecses, 1991) -Low power (Schubert, 2005) HORIZONTAL ORIENTATION Left -Past oriented Right -Future oriented (Santiago, Lupianez, Perez & Funes, 2007)
fig.8 Upward Vertical Orientation: scanpath
The indication here is that inducing a viewer to focus their attention upwards or downwards on an image field may also have cognitive and emotional impact. Studies suggest that having people focus on the upper part of the visual field evokes positive valence, while focus on the lower part of a visual field evokes negative valence (Kovecses, 1991; Meier, Sellbom & Wygant, 2007). Furthermore, the subjective experience of power is also impacted by vertical orientation, and high power inductions may reduce feelings of threat while low power implies a need to act or to change one’s circumstances (Schubert, 2005). These states may coincide with lowered arousal and heighted arousal, respectively. Figure 7 shows an image field that causes a downward vertical orientation, while figure 8 shows an image that causes an upward vertical orientation. As can be seen from the scanpaths, viewers rarely move their gaze from the lower/upper field in each instance. The horizontal spatial orientation may suggest that tasks of the ‘now’ (or tasks requiring present mindset) would be best fit with a central image, while forward thinking tasks like creative or oppositional tasks are future/right oriented and contemplative tasks are past/left oriented.
fig.9 Downward curves (with few short waves)
Element 4. Shape and Angle Rounded: -Happy, positive -Hard sounds -Pleasant
Angular: -Angry, threat (Aranoff, 2006) -Soft sounds (Ozturk, Krehm & Vouloumanos, 2013) -Unpleasant (Lunholm, 1921)
Several short waves/angles: stronger motor expression Few long waves/angles: weaker motor expression (Lunholm, 1921) Downward curves: evoke sadness Downward angles: evoke agitation Upward curves: evoke joy Upward angles: evoke power (Poffenberger & Barrows, 1924) Downward pointing triangles evoke negative valence (Watson, Blagrove, Evans & Moore, 2012)
fig.10 Downward Angles / Triangles (with many short angles)
The element of shape is strongly associated with emotion, and it is suggested that there is also a linguistic connection between hard and soft visuals, sounds and valence. An added element of spatial orientation suggests that the combination of shape and upward or downward angle can produce a variety of responses (Poffenberger & Barrows, 1924). More recent research on the emotional valence of shapes suggest that certain shapes, such as downward pointing triangles can stand in for aspects of human facial expressions (in this case, the expression of anger as communicated through a furrowed brow) and nonconsciously evoke negative valence (Watson, Blagrove, Evans & Moore, 2012). Figures 9 and 10 depict variations on this idea.
fig.11 Bound
Element 5. Boundaries Boundaries: evoke structure, assurance, low threat, high control, wholeness, completion (Cutright, 2012) According to Cutright (2012), imagery with boundaries provide a sense of psychological control and order while reducing feelings of chaos and threat. In this way, visual structure can serve the same emotional purpose as physical structure. Furthermore, boundaries or visual framing may enhance visual processing efficiency (Burris & Branscombe, 2005), thus adding a level of visual fluency as discussed in element 2.
fig.12 Unbound
Conclusion This manuscript is an attempt at summarizing and organizing the literature that has informed my ongoing body of research. The artwork on display for the SECAC Fellowship Exhibition was created with the concepts discovered in this study. In addition to another year of testing new color compositions in eye-tracking for task performance, the resulting work will be written for journal publication. For information on this study or my work I can be contacted at
[email protected] Thank you SECAC and the fellowship committee for your support, Derek G. Larson
All content and images are copyrighted by the author. Figures 1 & 5-10 were used in the eye-tracking task performance study.
REFERENCES Albers, Josef (1963). Interaction of Color. Yale University Press Aranoff, J., (2006). How we recognize angry and happy emotions in people, places and things. Cross-Cultural Research, 40, 83-105. Berlyne, D.E. (1970). Novelty, complexity and hedonic value. Perceptual Psychophysiology, 8, 279-286. Chiu, P.H. & Deldin, P.J. (2007). Neural evidence for enhanced error detection in major depressive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164 (4) 608-616. Crowley, A.E. (1993). The two-dimensional impact of color on shopping. Marketing Letters, 4 (1), 59-69. Cutright, K.M. (2012). The beauty of boundaries: When and why we seek structure in consumption. Journal of Consumer Research, 38 (5), 775-790. Elliot, A.J. & Maier (2007). Color and Psychological Functioning. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16 (5), 250-254. Elliot, A.J. & Niesta, D. (2008). Romantic red: Red enhances men’s attraction to women. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 95, 1150-1164. Feltman, R. & Elliot, A.J. (2011). The influence of red on perceptions of relative dominance and threat in a competitive context. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 33, 308-314. Isen, A. M., Johnson, M. M. S., Mertz, E., and Robinson,G. F. (1985), The influence of positive affect on the unusualness of word associations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 1413-1426. Jacobs, K.W. & Hustymyer, F.G. Jr. (1974). Effects of four psychological primary colors on GSR, heart rate and perspiration rate. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 41, 207-210. Jacoby, L. & Dallas, M. (1981). On the relationship between autobiographical memory and perceptual learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 110, 306-340. James, W.T. & Domingos, W.R. (1953). The effect of color shock on motor performance and tremor. Journal of General Psychology, 48, 187-193. Kovecses, Z. (1991). Happiness: A definitional effort. Metaphor and Symbolic Activity, 6, 29-46. Labroo, A. & Kim, S. (2009). The Instrumentality Heuristic: Why metacognitive difficulty is desirable during goal pursuit. Psychological Science, 20 (1), 127-134. Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (1999). Philosophy in the flesh. New York: Basic Books. Larson, C.L., Aranoof, J. & Stearns, J.J. (2007). The shape of threat: Simple geometric forms evoke rapid and sustained capture of attention. Emotion, 7 (3), 526-534. Lichtenfeld, S., Elliot, A.J., Maier, M.A. & Pekrun, R. (2011). Fertile Green: Green facilitates creative performance. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 38 (6), 784-797.
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positive valence
contentment
delight
low arousal
high arousal
hopelessness
anger
negative valence
This book and its accompanying exhibition were made possible with support from the 2015 SECAC Fellowship Grant exhibition: INDEX by Derek G. Larson, Oct 23 2015 Artists Image Resource 518 Foreland Street Pittsburgh, PA 15212
southeastern college art conference
