Antartica\'s Untapped Resources...

GG5603     Turnitin  ID    31331150                                                            

1   Candidate  #  1405123  

Undiscovered  Resources:  The  Scramble   For  Antarctica     In early January, 2014, Douglas Fox in his article Antarctica and the Arctic: A polar primer for the great new game, claimed how the Arctic and Antarctic will eventually become contested territories by the world powers and other regional actors looking forward to take advantage of the untapped resources in both the Arctic and Antarctic. This brief essay will attempt to explain and support to a certain degree, Fox’s argument that there is a scramble for the Arctic and Antarctic. Specifically this essay will argue why the Antarctic could be mined and exploded in the future, and why the most unknown and mysterious continent in the world is holding untapped resources that eventually the hegemonic powers will look forward to take advantage despite the current legal treaties initiated with the Antarctic Treaty in 1959. The question whether Antarctica holds one of the most undiscovered resources in the world will be dealt in two sections. First, this essay will provide a brief overview of Antarctic legal regimes by explaining the most important articles—The Antarctic treaty, for example— and other treaties and conventions that should be wisely mentioned, to therefore comprehend the “new great game” as mentioned by Fox (2014). Second, we will analyze many of the important strategic assets that Antarctica has, from fishing vessels for toothfish to claims of oil and gas, and from oil and gas to mineral deposits hidden in the Antarctic. Finally, to a certain degree, we will support Fox’s claim—untapped resources in Antarctica—written in the aforementioned article, that the Antarctic will be eventually colonized—or if its not already being colonized indirectly by Science—by the world hegemonic powers or other regional players such as Argentina, Chile, Australia, New Zealand, China, and so on. To understand the potential resources that the Antarctic has, and to understand why the hegemonic powers are growing an interest in the most mysterious continent in the world—Antarctica--, we must first understand the most important Antarctic history: the legal regimes and treaties in the continent; without a proper overview of the historic treaties, it would be quite difficult to understand the present situation in Antarctica. The Antarctic treaty comes intro history as recognized by various regional stakeholders and hegemonies— Argentina, Australia, Chile, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, Soviet Union, United States,

GG5603     Turnitin  ID    31331150                                                          

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Candidate  #  1405123     South Africa, and United Kingdom, to name a few—in the late 1950s; the soil of Antarctica was to be used for peaceful purposes and not as a matter of discord among the various stakeholders according to the British Antarctic Survey (2013; supported by: Antarctic Treaty Secretariat, 2013). The treaty was signed and ratified the 1st of December 1959 in Washington D.C., entering in force in 1961. Given the fact that there are many articles in the treaty, we will mention the most prominent ones. For instance, Article I holds that Antarctica should be used for peaceful purposes: no military bases shall be built and the treaty shall not prevent the use of military personnel or equipment for scientific purposes; Article II holds that there is a right of freedom of scientific investigation; Article IV, which is highly significant, holds that the present treaty should not be interpreted as a renunciation by any of the contracting parties which previously have asserted the rights of claim and/or ownership, and that no rights should be claim while the treaty is enforced; and lastly, Article V holds that there should not be any nuclear tests nor whatsoever (following Article II of no military operations; supported by the NSF, 2014). We may emphasize that there are other important articles in the treaty but these are highly important and significant to understand present day Antarctica. Other important treaties include the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972), Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (1991) and The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (British Antarctic Survey, 2013). Summarizing these three important legalities, the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seal recognizes the vulnerability of Antarctic seals for commercial exploitation and how the Antarctic seals are important for the conservation of the Antarctic environment, and why they ought to be protected (CCALMR, 2013); The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty partially strengthens the original Antarctic treaty (1959), which main purpose is to rectify to the commitment to help preserve the Antarctic environment and ecosystems, designating the continent as a natural reserve for peaceful and scientific purposes; and, the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources simply reinforces the premise of the conservation of maritime wildlife in the Antarctic because Krill catches in the South Atlantic could have certain unknown consequences for Antarctica (British Antarctic Survey, 2013; Supported by the CCALMR, 2013).

GG5603     Turnitin  ID    31331150                                                          

3   Candidate  #  1405123  

 

Now that we have briefly overviewed the most important regimes in the 1959 treaty, we can now continue with the review of Mathew Fox (2014), thereby arguing why Antarctica could have the potential of a massive exploitation of natural resources but at the same time the difficulties (e.g., weather and temperature) that is has like no other continent, and why these factors may delay such “ colonization “ as Fox’s claims. Robson (2013) indicates how China is slowly boosting its presence in the Icy Continent by doubling their scientific research programs summing to a total of $55 million. Although it is known and abided per the Antarctic treaty (Antarctica could be mined until 2048), nothing is stopping China from performing geographical surveys on the land, which leads us to the following question: Is China preparing for a foreseeable colonization of the Antarctic better than other countries, while enjoying economic growth at home? Interestingly, Anne-Marie Brady, political science professor at Canterbury University, quoted by Robson (2013), states that the Chinese have outlined all of the untapped resources in Antarctic and in light of their need of energy, they are “ very interested “ in the Antarctic, while other established countries see it as a taboo academic conversation. Additionally (unknown, 2014) there have been rumors of China seeking a new fourth research base in Antarctica with the focus of exploring climate change, and needless to mention the degree of ongoing mainland Chinese tourists traveling to Antarctica through Chile, which has alarmed international researchers—and even Chinese government—about limiting the number of Chinese tourists given Antarctica’s sensitive environment (Nan, 2014). It is interesting to note how China, initially, never had a stake or claim in Antarctica, but how with their ongoing economic growth, China has cleverly asserted themselves in Antarctica—30 years ago the Americans and Russians would not have seen this coming— and it could eventually accelerate the resource exploration of the Americans and the Russians—though Russians are clearly more focused on the Arctic now. Why is China so interested in Antarctica? What are the most attractive resources that Antarctica has to offer? In the introduction of The potential for mineral exploration and extraction in Antarctica (Broughton, 2012), the author mentions how Antarctica’s remote location, isolation and extreme weather has kept the different powers at bay searching for minerals. But due to the need for energy, and coupled with the exhaustion of resources from other continents, the day may not be far that humans will head to Antarctica to exploit its natural untapped resources, the author claims; the prospective minerals are located underneath the ice sheets, according to

GG5603     Turnitin  ID    31331150                                                          

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Candidate  #  1405123     Darcy Broughton (2012). Broughton mentions that the only known resources thus far in Antarctica are iron ore and coal, but there have been assumptions by geophysicists that there is, indeed, the possibility of finding other natural resources, but since 95% of the world uses iron for industrial purposes, iron ore is already a big attraction for industrial powerhouses. Regarding coal, the author depicts, that coal although located in the bed sheets of the Transantarctic Mountains, is not an attractive mineral to exploit because of logistic complications and to a certain extent polluting the ecosystem while extracting. Another interesting remark that the author points out is the similarity of those mineral deposits located across the Andes Mountains, which include zinc, copper, molybdenum, and gold. Albeit the author mentions the attractiveness of Antarctica as a resource rich land, nonetheless there are financial and political constraints such as the supply of fresh water, better living conditions, transportation obstacles, harsh winters, waste disposal, inventory parts for emergency planning, and so on, making Antarctica a very complicated place to start mining operation and extraction processes (Zumberge, 1979; Broughton 2012). As early mentioned, China will become an important player in the Antarctic. However, another important player that has been quietly building an Antarctic base, expecting to accommodate 15 researchers in the winter and 60 in the summer, is none other than South Korea; the cost of the Jang Bogo base in Terra Nova Bay would approximately be $120 million constructed by Hyundai Engineering (Field, 2011). According to Field (2011), the Ross Sea is suspected of having one of the largest quantities of oil reserves after Saudi Arabia, therefore New Zealand is eager for the expiry or renegotiation of the treaty, and Australia sees their foreign and energy policies highly tied to that of Antarctica. But now with new additional players—South Korea and China—will Australia and New Zealand become dormant or will they re-enforce their Antarctic policies? Going back to Douglas Fox (2014), we can note how the Antarctic, given the mineral deposits, oil and gas that lie underneath the ice sheets, will indeed become contested by other regional players, however we should also indicate that rather than a “ great game “ as Fox mentions in his article, could cooperation be the key amongst China, South Korea, Australia, and New Zealand, to become good partners in the Antarctic? Fisheries—which has been hardly mentioned thus far—is another important resource in Antarctica that could become an apple of discord among the stakeholders. For instance, Douglas Fox rightly mentions “ exotic fish like the “ toothfish “, which is because the

GG5603     Turnitin  ID    31331150                                                          

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Candidate  #  1405123     Southern Ocean harbors toothfish, Chilean sea bass, and more than 300 species of fish that are resistant to extreme darkness and cold, giving Antarctica another important resource (Rozzell, 2014). O’Brien, who is a professor at the University of Alaska, and has been studying ice fish in Palmer and McMurdo stations in the Antarctic, states that the overfishing of toothfish could have serious implications for the sensitive Antarctic ecosystem; and there should be more regulations and limits in the must unpatrolled ocean in the world. Additionally, O’Brien states in the interview, that there is not enough biological information to properly harvest toothfish and concludes on why the Ross Sea might still be one of the last pure, untouched, seas in the world. After consulting with the fish industry and interested stakeholders, South Georgia recently (Merco Press, 2014) has decided to limit the fishing of toothfish and icefish in the Antarctic, by issuing two-year licenses for the Southern Ocean most precious fish. The CCAMLR has limited the toothfish catch to 2400 tons and the regulation for 2015 should be known at the end of this current year. Thereby, we can start to understand Fox’s point of view about why Antarctica is not only about oil, gas and minerals, but also the fisheries and pure ecosystems (Rozzell, 2014) could make Antarctica a highly disputed continent. The consensus made by the stakeholders was a bold and courageous move to advocate the well-being of the maritime ecosystem, and not to mention the Krill season, which recently ended in October of last year; these bold actions makes the CCAMLR an important mediator and regulator for fishing licenses, and in a way, a buffer zone for those countries that want to fish more than others. Lastly, Antarctica’s tourism is quasi as virgin and untouched as the Southern Ocean’s fisheries, and it is worthwhile mentioning the growing tourism industry—starting from Punta Arenas or Ushuaia—that has been slowly developing throughout Antarctica in the recent decade, by receiving a new wave of tourists from far away countries like China (see: Nan, 2014). According to Canoe & Kayak magazine, “ The South George Island is the Mount Everest of expedition kayaking’, states the author (Mihell, 2010), as he recounts the story of a group of Norwegian explorers, whom decided to travel to one of the most remote places in the world: South Georgia Island. Which leads us wondering, whether the Antarctic tourism industry could be another important untapped resource for the world industrial powers? Moreover, which country would foresee, control and regulate tourist mobilities? Funded by seven private companies, IAATO (International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators) is the leading tourists association, which indirectly approves whoever operates in the Antarctic,

GG5603     Turnitin  ID    31331150                                                          

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Candidate  #  1405123     and also has an influential and important role ever since the Antarctic Environmental Protocol in 1991, by providing a “ seal of approval “ to a company that wishes to operate in the area (IAATO, 2014). Tourism in the Antarctic began in the late 1950 when a group Argentines and Chileans passengers traveled to the South Shetland Islands as part of resupply missions to research stations, until eventually it is what has become today: IAATO has over more than 100 associate travel agencies across developed economies to promote tourism in the Antarctic. But when a trip can even cost around $14,000-$23,000 (Polar Cruises, 2014)—departing Ushuaia followed by the Falkland/Malvinas Islands, South Georgia Islands, and then onto the Antarctic Peninsula—we ask ourselves: in theory they promote Antarctic tourism but in reality could the majority of the global citizens afford it? Whatever the answer is, tourism in the Antarctic is growing and could eventually become another untapped monetary resource that the Antarctic indirectly is producing. Yes, Antarctica has all the resources—mineral deposits, oil, gas, fisheries, tourism (still debatable) and so on—but did Douglas Fox (2014), critically argued that Antarctica is been ravaged out of its resources? Fox depicts the Antarctic (P. 4) as a the “ South Pole “ monopoly game, however, after mentioning a few important players—Chile, Argentina, Norway, Australia, New Zealand, China, South Korea, United States, to name a few—we can note that there is hardly a monopoly fight in the Antarctic because so far the main concern is scientific research and the well-being of the ecosystem. Fox’s argument relies much on past history of important claims of Argentina and Chile during the 60’s and 70’s, but still he does not argue much about the current situation in Antarctica, while indicating that Antarctica is part of the great game—as the ongoing trend in the Artic—he has not addressed many important points (e.g., Australia’s policy towards the Antarctic, South Korea’s new base or China’s investment) that could have been more convincing that, indeed, the Antarctic is being geopolitically contested. Still, there are some facts that he points out as the Antarctic having fresh water, untapped fishery sources, hidden gold deposits, and other important mineral deposits, but the problem with this approach is that he is providing information that already is vox populi in with foreign leaders: that the Antarctic as harsh as it may seem, has resources that world powers are keen to exploit, but there are also certain geographic conditions, which cannot be ignored. Consequently, we agree to a lesser extent that there is an indirect competition among Asian, South American, North American, Oceanic, European, and Eurasian countries, to

GG5603     Turnitin  ID    31331150                                                          

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Candidate  #  1405123     eventually claim the most important piece of land with the most resources in the Frozen Continent, but presumably that competition or “ geopolitical great game “ as Fox claims, has hardly commenced.

 

Bibliography  

Reference List Antarctic Treaty Secretariat. (2013). The antartic treaty. Retrieved February 04, 2014, from http://www.ats.aq/e/ats.htm British Antarctic Survery. (2013). The antarctic treaty (1959). Retrieved February 4, 2014, from http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/about_antarctica/geopolitical/treaty/update_1959.php Broughton, D. (2012). The potential for mineral exploration and extraction in antarctica. (Project Report No. 59775333). University of Canterbury: Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Maritime Living Resources. (2013). History of the convention. Retrieved February 04, 2014, from http://www.ccamlr.org/en/organisation/history-convention Field, M. (2011). Antarctic oil sets up cold war. Retrieved February 05, 2014, from http://www.stuff.co.nz/the-press/news/5644633/Antarctic-oil-sets-up-cold-war Fox, D. (2014). Antarctica and the arctic: A polar primer for the great new game. The Christian Science Monitor, , February 02. IAATO. (2014). International association of antarctica tour operators. Retrieved February 05, 2014, from http://iaato.org/home

GG5603     Turnitin  ID    31331150                                                          

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Candidate  #  1405123     Merco Press. (2014). South georgia will issue two-year licenses for toothfish and icefish. Retrieved February 05, 2014, from http://en.mercopress.com/2014/01/13/south-georgiawill-issue-two-year-licenses-for-toothfish-and-icefish Mihell, C. (2010). 20 days around south georgia island. Canoe & Kayak, , February 05, 2014. Nan, W. (2014). Rise in chinese tours to antarctica causes alarm. South China Morning Post, National Science Foundation. (2014). The antarctic treaty. Retrieved February 04, 2014, from http://www.nsf.gov/geo/plr/antarct/anttrty.jsp Polar Cruises. (2014). Crossing the circle via falklands and south georgia: Epic antarctica. Retrieved February 05, 2014, from http://www.polarcruises.com/antarctica/ships/shipsadventure-options/sea-adventurer-antarctic/crossing-circle-falklands-and Robson, S. (February 18, 2013). China is boosting its presence in resource-rich antarctica. Stars and Stripes, , February 04, 2013. Rozell, N. (2014). The last intact ecosystem on earth. Alaska Native News, , February, 05. Unknown. (2014). Chinese seek new antarctic base. Retrieved February 04, 2014, from http://www.stuff.co.nz/world/australia/9654720/Chinese-seek-new-Antarctic-base Zumberge, J. H. (1979). Mineral resources and geopolitics in antarctica: The physical obstacles to exploitation of mineral resources in antarctica are currently prohibitive, but complex political issues will be raised if such exploitation becomes profitable. American Scientist, 67(1), 68-77.